http://www.uncp.edu/home/canada/work/allam/general/glossary.htmより
A
allegory (AL-eh-GOR-ee): a narrative that serves as an extended metaphor.
寓話（AL-EH-GOR-EE）：拡張メタファーとして物語。
Allegories are written in the form of fables, parables, poems, stories, and almost any other style or genre.
寓話は（伝説、神話）、たとえ話、詩、物語、そして他のほとんどのスタイルやジャンルの形式で書かれています。
（参考・・in the form of a letter [ in letter form] 手紙の形で）
The main purpose of an allegory is to tell a story that has characters, a setting, as well as other types of symbols, that have both literal and figurative meanings.
寓話の主な目的は、他のタイプの象徴と同様に、登場人 （背景, 環境、設定）もつ話をすることである、文字どうりの意味と比喩的な意味の両方のを持つ。
The difference between an allegory and a symbol is that an allegory is a complete narrative that conveys abstract ideas to get a point across, while a symbol is a representation of an idea or concept that can have a different meaning throughout a literary work (A Handbook to Literature).
One well-known example of an allegory is Dante’s The Divine Comedy.
In Inferno, Dante is on a pilgrimage to try to understand his own life, but his character also represents every man who is in search of his purpose in the world (Merriam Webster Encyclopedia of Literature).
Although Virgil literally guides Dante on his journey through the mystical inferno, he can also be seen as the reason and human wisdom that Dante has been looking for in his life.
See A Handbook to Literature, Merriam Webster’s Encyclopedia of Literature.
Machella Caldwell, Student, University of North Carolina at Pembroke
alliteration (a-LIT-uh-RAY-shuhn):
a pattern of sound that includes the repetition of consonant sounds.
The repetition can be located at the beginning of successive words or inside the words. Poets often use alliteration to audibly represent the action that is taking place.
For instance, in the Inferno, Dante states:
"I saw it there, but I saw nothing in it, except the rising of the boiling bubbles" (261).
The repetition of the "b" sounds represents the sounds of bubbling, or the bursting action of the boiling pitch. In addition, in Sir Phillip Sidney's Astrophel and Stella, the poet states: "Biting my truant pen, beating myself for spite" (Line 13).
This repetition of the "t" sound represents the action of the poet; one can hear and visualize his anguish as he bites the pen.
Also in Astrophel and Stella, the poet states, "Oft turning others' leaves, to see if thence would flow, / Some fresh and fruitful showers upon my sunburn'd brain" (7-8).
Again, the poet repeats the "fr" sounds to emphasize the speaker's desire for inspiration in expressing his feelings.
Poets may also use alliteration to call attention to a phrase and fix it into the reader's mind; thus, it is useful for emphasis.
Therefore, not only does alliteration provide poetry or prose with a unique sound, it can place emphasis on specific phrases and represent the action that is taking place.
See A Handbook to Literature, Literature:
An Introduction to Fiction, Poetry, and Drama.
Stacey Ann Singletary, Student, University of North Carolina at Pembroke
allusion (a-LOO-zhuhn):
a reference in a literary work to a person, place, or thing in history or another work of literature. Allusions are often indirect or brief references to well-known characters or events. Specific examples of allusions can be found throughout Dante’s Inferno.
In a passage, Dante alludes to the Greek mythological figures, Phaethon and Icarus, to express his fear as he descends from the air into the eighth circle of hell.
He states:
I doubt if Phaethon feared more - that time
he dropped the sun-reins of his father's chariot
and burned the streak of sky we see today -
or if poor Icarus did - feeling his sides
unfeathering as the wax began to melt,
his father shouting:
"Wrong, your course is wrong" (Canto XVII: 106-111).
Allusions are often used to summarize broad, complex ideas or emotions in one quick, powerful image.
For example, to communicate the idea of self-sacrifice one may refer to Jesus, as part of Jesus' story portrays him dying on the cross in order to save mankind (Matthew 27:45-56).
In addition, to express righteousness, one might allude to Noah who "had no faults and was the only good man of his time" (Genesis 6:9-22).
Furthermore, the idea of fatherhood or patriarchial love can be well understood by alluding to Abraham, who was the ancestor of many nations (Genesis 17:3-6).
Finally, Cain is an excellent example to convey banishment, rejection, or evil, for he was cast out of his homeland by God (Genesis 4:12).
Thus, allusions serve an important function in writing in that they allow the reader to understand a difficult concept
by relating to an already familiar story.
See A Handbook to Literature, Literature:
An Introduction to Fiction, Poetry, and Drama
. Stacey Ann Singletary, Student, University of North Carolina at Pembroke
antagonist (an-TAG-uh-nist):
a character in a story or poem who deceives, frustrates, or works again the main character, or protagonist, in some way.
The antagonist doesn’t necessarily have to be an person.
It could be death, the devil, an illness, or any challenge that prevents the main character from living “happily ever after."
In fact, the antagonist could be a character of virtue in a literary work where the protagonist represents evil.
An antagonist in the story of Genesis is the serpent.
He convinces Eve to disobey God, setting off a chain of events.
that leads to Adam and Eve being banished from paradise. In the play Othello by William Shakespeare, the antagonist is Iago.
Throughout the play, he instigates conflicts and sows distrust among the main characters, Othello and Desdemona, two lovers who have risked their livelihood in order to elope.
Iago is determined to break up their marriage due to his suspicions that Othello has taken certain liberties with his wife.
See Benet’s Reader’s Encyclopedia. Victoria Henderson, Student, University of North Carolina at Pembroke
aside (uh-SIDE): an actor’s speech, directed to the audience, that is not supposed to be heard by other actors on stage.
An aside is usually used to let the audience know what a character is about to do or what he or she is thinking.
For example, in Othello, Iago gives several asides, informing the audience of his plans and how he will try to achieve his goals.
Asides are important because they increase an audience's involvement in a play by giving them vital information pertaining what is happening, both inside of a character's mind and in the plot of the play.
See A Handbook to Literature, The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Literary Terms, Merriam Webster’s Encyclopedia of Literature. Dawn Oxendine, Student, University of North Carolina at Pembroke
B
ballad (BAL-uhd):
a narrative folk song.
The ballad is traced back to the Middle Ages.
Ballads were usually created by common people and passed orally due to the illiteracy of the time. Subjects for ballads include killings, feuds, important historical events, and rebellion.
For example, in the international ballad “Lord Randall,” the young man is poisoned by his sweetheart, and in “Edward,” the son commits patricide.
A common stylistic element of the ballad is repetition.
“Lord Randall” illustrates this well with the phrase at the end of each verse: “…mother, mak my bed soon, for I’m sick at the heart and I fain wad lie down.”
A Handbook to Literature notes the ballad occurs in very early literature in nearly every nation.
Therefore, in addition to being entertaining, ballads can help us to understand a given culture by showing us what values or norms that culture deemed important.
See A Handbook to Literature, Benet’s Reader’s Encyclopedia, Merriam-Webster’s Encyclopedia of Literature, The Book of Ballads.
Monica Horne, Student, University of North Carolina at Pembroke
C
character (KARE-ec-ter):
a person who is responsible for the thoughts and actions within a story, poem, or other literature.
Characters are extremely important because they are the medium through which a reader interacts with a piece of literature.
Every character has his or her own personality, which a creative author uses to assist in forming the plot of a story or creating a mood.
The different attitudes, mannerisms, and even appearances of characters can greatly influence the other major elements in a literary work, such as theme, setting, and tone.
With this understanding of the character, a reader can become more aware of other aspects of literature, such as symbolism, giving the reader a more complete understanding of the work.
The character is one of the most important tools available to the author.
In the ballad "Edward," for instance, the character himself sets the tone of the ballad within the first stanza.
After reading the first few stanzas, one learns that Edward has murdered his father and is very distraught. His attitude changes to disgust and finally to despair when he realizes the consequences he must face for his actions.
An example of the attitudes and personalities of characters determining the theme is also seen in the book of Genesis.
The proud personality of Cain and the humble personality of Abel help create the conflict for this story. Cain and Abel were brothers, possibly twins, who displayed intense sibling rivalry. God was not pleased with Cain's offerings, but found pleasure in Abel's offerings.
Provoked by God's displeasure with him, Cain murdered his own brother out of jealousy. Victoria Henderson, Student, University of North Carolina at Pembroke
connotation (KAH-nuh-TAE-shun):
an association that comes along with a particular word.
Connotations relate not to a word's actual meaning, or denotation, but rather to the ideas or qualities that are implied by that word. A good example is the word "gold."
The denotation of gold is a malleable, ductile, yellow element.
The connotations, however, are the ideas associated with gold, such as greed, luxury, or avarice. Another example occurs in the Book of Genesis. Jacob says:
“Dan will be a serpent by the roadside, a viper along the path, that bites the horse’s heels so that its rider tumbles backward" (Gen 49:17).
In this passage, Dan is not literally going to become a snake. However, describing Dan as a "snake" and "viper" forces the reader to associate him with the negative qualities that are commonly associated with reptiles, such as slyness, danger, and evil.
Dan becomes like a snake, sly and dangerous to the riders.
Writers use connotation to make their writing more vivid and interesting to read. See A Dictionary of Literary Terms and Literary Theory. Jennifer Lance, Student, University of North Carolina at Pembroke
couplet (KUP-let):
a style of poetry defined as a complete thought written in two lines with rhyming ends.
The most popular of the couplets is the heroic couplet.
The heroic couplet consists of two rhyming lines of iambic pentameter usually having a pause in the middle of each line.
One of William Shakespeare’s trademarks was to end a sonnet with a couplet, as in the poem “Shall I Compare Thee to a Summer’s Day”:
So long as men can breathe or eyes can see,
So long as lives this, and this gives life to thee.
By using the couplet Shakespeare would often signal
the end of a scene in his plays as well.
An example of a scene’s end signaled by a couplet is the end of Act IV of Othello.
The scene ends with Desdemona’s lines:
Good night.
Good night. Heaven me such uses send.
Not to pick bad from bad, but by bad mend.
See A Handbook to Literature, Benet’s Reader’s Encyclopedia, Mirriam-Webster’s Encyclopedia of Literature, Literature:
An Introduction to Fiction, Poetry, and Drama. Monica Horne, Student, University of North Carolina at Pembroke
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D
denotation (DEE-no-TAE-shuhn):
the exact meaning of a word, without the feelings or suggestions that the word may imply.
It is the opposite of “connotation” in that it is the “dictionary” meaning of a word, without attached feelings or associations.
Some examples of denotations are:
1. heart:
an organ that circulates blood throughout the body.
Here the word "heart" denotes the actual organ, while in another context, the word "heart" may connote feelings of love or heartache.
2. sweater: a knitted garment for the upper body.
The word "sweater" may denote pullover sweaters or cardigans, while “sweater” may also connote feelings of warmness or security.
Denotation allows the reader to know the exact meaning of a word so that he or she will better understand the work of literature.
See Literature:
An Introduction to Fiction, Poetry, and Drama, A Glossary of Literary Terms, A Dictionary of Literary Terms and Literary Theory, Webster’s Dictionary.
Shana Locklear, Student, University of North Carolina at Pembroke
denouement (day-noo-mon):
literally meaning the action of untying, a denouement is the final outcome of the main complication in a play or story.
Usually the climax (the turning point or "crisis") of the work has already occurred by the time the denouement occurs.
It is sometimes referred to as the explanation or outcome of a drama that reveals all the secrets and misunderstandings connected to the plot.
In the drama Othello, there is a plot to deceive Othello into believing that his wife, Desdemona, has been unfaithful to him.
As a result of this plot, Othello kills his wife out of jealousy, the climax of the play.
The denounement occurs soon after, when Emilia, who was Desdemona's mistress, proves to Othello that his wife was in fact honest, true, and faithful to him.
Emilia reveals to Othello that her husband, Iago, had plotted against Desdemona and tricked Othello into believing that she had been unfaithful.
Iago kills Emilia in front of Othello, and she dies telling Othello his wife was innocent. As a result of being mad with grief, Othello plunges a dagger into his own heart.
Understanding the denouement helps the reader to see how the final end of a story unfolds, and how the structure of stories works to affect our emotions.
See Encyclopedia of Literature, Miriam Webster.
Shelby Locklear, Student, University of North Carolina at Pembroke
dialogue (di-UH-log):
The conversation between characters in a drama or narrative.
on between two or more characters.
In the anonymous ballad, "Sir Patrick Spens", we are able to observe the dialogue between Sir Patrick Spens and his mirry men.
In the verses 21-24, "Mak hast, mak haste, my mirry men all, Our guid schip sails the morne:
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O say na sae, my master deir, for I feir a deadline storme," dialogue can be seen. According to A Handbook of Literature, dialogue serves several functions in literature.
It moves the action along in a work and it also helps to characterize the personality of the speakers, which vary depending on their nationalities, jobs, social classes, and educations.
It also gives literature a more natural, conversational flow, which makes it more readable and enjoyable.
By showcasing human interaction, dialogue prevents literature from being nothing more than a list of descriptions and actions.
Dialogue varies in structure and tone depending on the people participating in the conversation and the mood that the author is trying to maintain in his or her writing.
See A Handbook to Literature,The American Heritage Dictionary.
Ramon Gonzalez, Student, University of North Carolina at Pembroke
didactic (di-DAK-tik):
refers to literature or other types of art that are instructional or informative.
In this sense The Bible is didactic because it offers guidance in moral, religious, and ethical matters.
It tells stories of the lives of people that followed Christian teachings, and stories of people that decided to go against God and the consequences that they faced.
The term "didactic" also refers to texts that are overburdened with instructive and factual information, sometimes to the detriment of a reader's enjoyment.
The opposite of "didactic" is "nondidactic."
If a writer is more concerned with artistic qualities and techniques than with conveying a message, then that piece of work is considered to be nondidactic, even if it is instructive. See Encyclopedia of Literature, Benet's Readers Encyclopedia.
Jennifer Baker, University of North Carolina at Pembroke
dramatic monologue (dra-MA-tik mon'-O-lôg):
a literary device that is used when a character reveals his or her innermost thoughts and feelings, those that are hidden throughout the course of the story line, through a poem or a speech.
This speech, where only one character speaks, is recited while other characters are present onstage.
This monologue often comes during a climactic moment in a work and often reveals hidden truths about a character, their history and their relationships.
Also it can further develop a character's personality and also be used to create irony.
The most famous examples of this special type of monologue can be found within the poems of Robert Browning, poem such as "My Last Duchess," "The Bishop Orders his Tomb," and "Andrea Del Santo".
Browning's use of dramatic monologue has a special effect on his works. The revelations of his characters not only develop themselves, but they also create settings within the monologues with their use of vivid imagery.
In Browning's works, the characters almost seem to take control of the story line, creating a poem of their own.
Other authors whose works included dramatic monologues are Robert Frost and T.S. Elliot.
See A Reader's Companion to World Literature.
Jacob Gersh, Student, University of North Carolina at Pembroke
E
elegy (EL-e-je):
a type of literature defined as a song or poem, written in elegiac couplets, that expresses sorrow or lamentation, usually for one who has died.
This type of work stemmed out of a Greek work known as a "elegus," a song of mourning or lamentation that is accompanied by the flut.
Beginning in the 16th century, elegies took the form we know today.
Two famous elegies include Thomas Gray’s "Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard" and Walt Whitman’s "When Lilacs Last in the Dooryard Bloom’d".
Gray’s elegy is notable in that it mourned the loss of a way of life rather than the loss of an individual.
His work, which some consider to be almost political, showed extreme discontent for strife and tyranny set upon England by Oliver Cromwell.
This work also acted as an outlet for Gray’s dissatisfaction with those poets who wrote in accordance with the thoughts and beliefs of the upper class.
In his elegy, Gray mourned for his country and mourned for its citizens. Whitman, inspired by the assassination of Abraham Lincoln, wrote his elegy in its classic form, showing sorrow for the loss of an individual.
See A Reader’s Companion to World Literature, and Dictionary of World Literature.
epigram (ep-e-gram): a short poem or verse that seeks to ridicule a thought or event, usually with witticism or sarcasm.
These literary works were very popular during the Renaissance in Europe in the late 14th century and the Neoclassical period, which began after the Restoration in 1660.
They were most commonly found in classic Latin literature, European and English literature.
In Ancient Greek, an epigram originally meant a short inscription, but its meaning was later broadened to include any very short poems.
Poems that are meditative or satiric all fall into this category.
These short poems formulated from the light verse species, which concentrated on the tone of voice and the attitude of the lyric or narrative speaker toward the subject.
With a relaxed manner, lyricists would recite poems to their subjects that were comical or whimsical.
Samuel Taylor Coleridge (1771-1834), an English poet, essayist and critic, constructed an epigram to show humor in Romanticism.
His thoughts, “On a Volunteer Singer”, compares and contrasts the death of swans with that of humans:
Swans sing before they die- ‘twere no bad thing
Should certain people die before they sing!
The ballad, “Lord Randall” illustrates a young man who set off to meet his one true love and ends up becoming “sick at heart” with what he finds. The young man later arrives home to his family about to die and to each family member he leaves something sentimental.
When asked what he leaves to his true love, he responds:
I leave her hell and fire…
This epigram tried to depict what happens to love gone sour.
Epigrams have been used throughout the centuries not only to criticize but also to promote improvement.
See Benet’s Reader’s Encyclopedia, Webster’s Third New International Dictionary (unabridged), and A Glossary of Literary Terms.
Melanie P.
Stephens, Student, University of North Carolina at Pembroke
F
figurative language (fig-YOOR-a-tive LAN-gwije): a type of language that varies from the norms of literal language, in which words mean exactly what they say.
Also known as the "ornaments of language," figurative language does not mean exactly what it says, but instead forces the reader to make an imaginative leap in order to comprehend an author's point.
It usually involves a comparison between two things that may not, at first, seem to relate to one another.
In a simile, for example, an author may compare a person to an animal:
"He ran like a hare down the street" is the figurative way to describe the man running and "He ran very quickly down the street" is the literal way to describe him.
Figurative language facilitates understanding because it relates something unfamiliar to something familiar.
Some popular examples of figurative language include a simile and metaphor.
See A Handbook to Literature, A Dictionary of Literary Terms and Literary Theory, and A Glossary of Literary Terms. Charla Cobbler, Student, University of North Carolina at Pembroke
flashback (flash-BAK):
“an interruption of the chronological sequence (as of a film or literary work) of an event of earlier occurrence” (Merriam, 288).
A flashback is a narrative technique that allows a writer to present past events during current events, in order to provide background for the current narration.
By giving material that occurred prior to the present event, the writer provides the reader with insight into a character's motivation and or background to a conflict.
This is done by various methods, narration, dream sequences, and memories (Holman et al, 197).
For example, in the Book of Matthew, a flashback is used when Joseph is the governor of Egypt. Upon seeing his brothers after many years, Joseph “remembered his dreams” of his brothers and how they previously sold him into slavery (NIV, 69). Another example would be the ballad of “The Cruel Mother.
” Here, a mother is remembering her murdered child.
As she is going to a church, she remembers her child born, grow, and die.
Later she thinks back to further in her past to remember how her own mother was unkind to her (Kennedy et al, 626-627).
Arthur Miller’s “Death of a Salesman” uses flashback to relate Willy Loman’s memories of the past.
At one point, Willy is talking with his dead brother while playing cards with Charley, reliving a past conversation in the present.
This shows a character that is mentally living in the present with the memories and events of the past (Roberts et al, 1232).
By understanding flashbacks, the reader is able to receive more details about the current narration by filling in the details about the past.
Melanie Stephens, Student, University of North Carolina at Pembroke
G
genre (ZHAHN-ruh):
a type of literature.
We say a poem, novel, story, or other literary work belongs to a particular genre if it shares at least a few conventions, or standard characteristics, with other works in that genre.
For example, works in the Gothic genre often feature supernatural elements, attempts to horrify the reader, and dark, foreboding settings, particularly very old castles or mansions.
Edgar Allan Poe's short story "The Fall of the House of Usher" belongs to the Gothic genre because it takes place in a gloomy mansion that seems to exert supernatural control over a man who lives in it.
Furthermore, Poe attempts to horrify the reader by describing the man's ghastly face, the burial of his sister, eerie sounds in the house, and ultimately the reappearance of the sister's bloody body at the end of the story.
Other genres include the pastoral poem, epic poem, elegy, tragic drama, and bildungsroman.
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An understanding of genre is useful because it helps us to see how an author adopts, subverts, or transcends the standard practices that other authors have developed. See A Handbook to Literature, Benet's Reader's Encyclopedia.
Mark Canada, English professor, University of North Carolina at Pembroke
Gothic (goth-IK):
a literary style popular during the end of the 18th century and the beginning of the 19th.
This style usually portrayed fantastic tales dealing with horror, despair, the grotesque and other “dark” subjects.
Gothic literature was named for the apparent influence of the dark gothic architecture of the period on the genre.
Also, many of these Gothic tales took places in such “gothic” surroundings. Other times, this story of darkness may occur in a more everyday setting, such as the quaint house where the man goes mad from the "beating" of his guilt in Edgar Allan Poe's “The Tell-Tale Heart.”
In essence, these stories were romances, largely due to their love of the imaginary over the logical, and were told from many different points of view.
This literature gave birth to many other forms, such as suspense, ghost stories, horror, mystery, and also Poe's detective stories.
Gothic literature wasn't so different from other genres in form as it was in content and its focus on the "weird" aspects of life.
This movement began to slowly open may people's eyes to the possible uses of the supernatural in literature. Jerry Taylor, Student, University of North Carolina at Pembroke
H
hyperbole (hi-per-bo-lee):
an extravagant exaggeration.
From the Greek for "overcasting," hyperbole is a figure of speech that is a grossly exaggerated description or statement.
In literature, such exaggeration is used for emphasis or vivid descriptions.
In drama, hyperbole is quite common, especially in heroic drama.
Hyperbole is a fundamental part of both burlesque writing and the “tall tales” from Western America.
The conscious overstatements of these tales are forms of hyperbole.
Many other examples of hyperbole can be found in the romance fiction and comedy genres. Hyperbole is even a part of our day-to-day speech:
‘You’ve grown like a bean sprout’ or ‘I’m older than the hills.’
Hyperbole is used to increase the effect of a description, whether it is metaphoric or comic. In poetry, hyperbole can emphasize or dramatize a person’s opinions or emotions.
Skilled poets use hyperbole to describe intense emotions and mental states.
Othello uses hyperbole to describe his anger at the possibility of Iago lying about his wife’s infidelity in Act III, Scene III of Shakespeare’s play Othello:
If thou dost slander her and torture me,
Never pray more;
abandon all remorse;
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On horror’s head accumulate;
Do deeds to make heaven weep, all earth amazed;
For nothing canst thou to damnation add
Greater than that.
In this passage, Othello is telling Iago that if he is lying then Othello will have no pity and Iago will have no hope for salvation.
Adding horrors with still more horrors, Othello is describing his potential rage.
Othello even declares that the Earth will be confounded with horror at Othello’s actions in such a state of madness.
See A Glossary of Literary Terms , A Handbook to Literature. Andy Stamper, Student, University of North Carolina at Pembroke
I
irony (i-RAH-nee): a literary term referring to how a person, situation, statement, or circumstance is not as it would actually seem. Many times it is the exact opposite of what it appears to be.
There are many types of irony, the three most common being verbal irony, dramatic irony, and cosmic irony.
Verbal irony occurs when either the speaker means something totally different than what he is saying or the audience realizes, because of their knowledge of the particular situation to which the speaker is referring, that the opposite of what a character is saying is true.
Verbal irony also occurs when a character says something in jest that, in actuality, is true.
In Julius Caesar, Marc Antony’s reference to Brutus being an honorable man is an example of verbal irony.
Marc Antony notes all of the good deeds Julius Caesar did for his people while, more than once,
he asks the rhetorical question, “Did this in Caesar seem ambitious?”
Antony uses this rhetorical question to try to convince his audience that Caesar is not ambitious, presenting Brutus as a dishonorable man because of his claim that Caesar was ambitious.
Dramatic irony occurs when facts are not known to the characters in a work of literature but are known by the audience.
In The Gospel According to St.
John, the Pharisees say of Jesus, “Can any good thing come out of Nazareth?”
This is dramatic irony for the reader already knows, according to the author, that Jesus is the Savior of the world and has already done much good for the people by forgiving their sins and healing the sick and oppressed.
The Pharisees are too blinded to see what good actually has come out of Nazareth.
Cosmic irony suggests that some unknown force brings about dire and dreadful events.
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c irony can be seen in Shakespeare’s Othello.
Iago begs his wife to steal Desdemona’s handkerchief so he can use this as conclusive proof that Cassio is having an affair with Desdemona.
At the end of the play, when Othello tells Iago’s wife about the handkerchief, she confesses that Iago put her up to stealing it.
Iago winds up being at Cassio’s mercy.
The very handkerchief Iago thought would allow him to become lieutenant and bring Cassio to ruins was the handkerchief that brought Iago to ruins and exalted Cassio even higher than his position of lieutenant.
Irony spices up a literary work by adding unexpected twists and allowing the reader to become more involved with the characters and plot.
See A Handbook to Literature, The Elements of Fiction Writing:
Characters and Viewpoint.
Robert Bean, Student, University of North Carolina at Pembroke
J
K
L
lyric (LEER-ick):
a lyric is a song-like poem written mainly to express the feelings of emotions or thought from a particular person, thus separating it from narrative poems.
These poems are generally short, averaging roughly twelve to thirty lines, and rarely go beyond sixty lines.
These poems express vivid imagination as well as emotion and all flow fairly concisely.
Because of this aspect, as well as their steady rhythm, they were often used in song.
In fact, most people still see a "lyric" as anything that is sung along to a musical instrument.
It is believed that the lyric began in its earliest stage in Ancient Egypt around 2600 BC in the forms of elegies, odes, or hymns generated out of religious ceremonies.
Some of the more note-worthy authors who have used the lyric include William Blake, William Wordsworth, John Keats, and William Shakespeare-who helped popularize the sonnet, another type of lyric.
The importance of understanding the lyric can best be shown through its remarkable ability to express with such imagination the innermost emotions of the soul.
See The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language. Jerry Taylor, Student, University of North Carolina at Pembroke
A
allegory (AL-eh-GOR-ee): a narrative that serves as an extended metaphor.
寓話（AL-EH-GOR-EE）：拡張メタファーとして物語。
Allegories are written in the form of fables, parables, poems, stories, and almost any other style or genre.
寓話は（伝説、神話）、たとえ話、詩、物語、そして他のほとんどのスタイルやジャンルの形式で書かれています。
（参考・・in the form of a letter [ in letter form] 手紙の形で）
The main purpose of an allegory is to tell a story that has characters, a setting, as well as other types of symbols, that have both literal and figurative meanings.
寓話の主な目的は、他のタイプの象徴と同様に、登場人 （背景, 環境、設定）もつ話をすることである、文字どうりの意味と比喩的な意味の両方のを持つ。
The difference between an allegory and a symbol is that an allegory is a complete narrative that conveys abstract ideas to get a point across, while a symbol is a representation of an idea or concept that can have a different meaning throughout a literary work (A Handbook to Literature).
One well-known example of an allegory is Dante’s The Divine Comedy.
In Inferno, Dante is on a pilgrimage to try to understand his own life, but his character also represents every man who is in search of his purpose in the world (Merriam Webster Encyclopedia of Literature).
Although Virgil literally guides Dante on his journey through the mystical inferno, he can also be seen as the reason and human wisdom that Dante has been looking for in his life.
See A Handbook to Literature, Merriam Webster’s Encyclopedia of Literature.
Machella Caldwell, Student, University of North Carolina at Pembroke
alliteration (a-LIT-uh-RAY-shuhn):
a pattern of sound that includes the repetition of consonant sounds.
The repetition can be located at the beginning of successive words or inside the words. Poets often use alliteration to audibly represent the action that is taking place.
For instance, in the Inferno, Dante states:
"I saw it there, but I saw nothing in it, except the rising of the boiling bubbles" (261).
The repetition of the "b" sounds represents the sounds of bubbling, or the bursting action of the boiling pitch. In addition, in Sir Phillip Sidney's Astrophel and Stella, the poet states: "Biting my truant pen, beating myself for spite" (Line 13).
This repetition of the "t" sound represents the action of the poet; one can hear and visualize his anguish as he bites the pen.
Also in Astrophel and Stella, the poet states, "Oft turning others' leaves, to see if thence would flow, / Some fresh and fruitful showers upon my sunburn'd brain" (7-8).
Again, the poet repeats the "fr" sounds to emphasize the speaker's desire for inspiration in expressing his feelings.
Poets may also use alliteration to call attention to a phrase and fix it into the reader's mind; thus, it is useful for emphasis.
Therefore, not only does alliteration provide poetry or prose with a unique sound, it can place emphasis on specific phrases and represent the action that is taking place.
See A Handbook to Literature, Literature:
An Introduction to Fiction, Poetry, and Drama.
Stacey Ann Singletary, Student, University of North Carolina at Pembroke
allusion (a-LOO-zhuhn):
a reference in a literary work to a person, place, or thing in history or another work of literature. Allusions are often indirect or brief references to well-known characters or events. Specific examples of allusions can be found throughout Dante’s Inferno.
In a passage, Dante alludes to the Greek mythological figures, Phaethon and Icarus, to express his fear as he descends from the air into the eighth circle of hell.
He states:
I doubt if Phaethon feared more - that time
he dropped the sun-reins of his father's chariot
and burned the streak of sky we see today -
or if poor Icarus did - feeling his sides
unfeathering as the wax began to melt,
his father shouting:
"Wrong, your course is wrong" (Canto XVII: 106-111).
Allusions are often used to summarize broad, complex ideas or emotions in one quick, powerful image.
For example, to communicate the idea of self-sacrifice one may refer to Jesus, as part of Jesus' story portrays him dying on the cross in order to save mankind (Matthew 27:45-56).
In addition, to express righteousness, one might allude to Noah who "had no faults and was the only good man of his time" (Genesis 6:9-22).
Furthermore, the idea of fatherhood or patriarchial love can be well understood by alluding to Abraham, who was the ancestor of many nations (Genesis 17:3-6).
Finally, Cain is an excellent example to convey banishment, rejection, or evil, for he was cast out of his homeland by God (Genesis 4:12).
Thus, allusions serve an important function in writing in that they allow the reader to understand a difficult concept
by relating to an already familiar story.
See A Handbook to Literature, Literature:
An Introduction to Fiction, Poetry, and Drama
. Stacey Ann Singletary, Student, University of North Carolina at Pembroke
antagonist (an-TAG-uh-nist):
a character in a story or poem who deceives, frustrates, or works again the main character, or protagonist, in some way.
The antagonist doesn’t necessarily have to be an person.
It could be death, the devil, an illness, or any challenge that prevents the main character from living “happily ever after."
In fact, the antagonist could be a character of virtue in a literary work where the protagonist represents evil.
An antagonist in the story of Genesis is the serpent.
He convinces Eve to disobey God, setting off a chain of events.
that leads to Adam and Eve being banished from paradise. In the play Othello by William Shakespeare, the antagonist is Iago.
Throughout the play, he instigates conflicts and sows distrust among the main characters, Othello and Desdemona, two lovers who have risked their livelihood in order to elope.
Iago is determined to break up their marriage due to his suspicions that Othello has taken certain liberties with his wife.
See Benet’s Reader’s Encyclopedia. Victoria Henderson, Student, University of North Carolina at Pembroke
aside (uh-SIDE): an actor’s speech, directed to the audience, that is not supposed to be heard by other actors on stage.
An aside is usually used to let the audience know what a character is about to do or what he or she is thinking.
For example, in Othello, Iago gives several asides, informing the audience of his plans and how he will try to achieve his goals.
Asides are important because they increase an audience's involvement in a play by giving them vital information pertaining what is happening, both inside of a character's mind and in the plot of the play.
See A Handbook to Literature, The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Literary Terms, Merriam Webster’s Encyclopedia of Literature. Dawn Oxendine, Student, University of North Carolina at Pembroke
B
ballad (BAL-uhd):
a narrative folk song.
The ballad is traced back to the Middle Ages.
Ballads were usually created by common people and passed orally due to the illiteracy of the time. Subjects for ballads include killings, feuds, important historical events, and rebellion.
For example, in the international ballad “Lord Randall,” the young man is poisoned by his sweetheart, and in “Edward,” the son commits patricide.
A common stylistic element of the ballad is repetition.
“Lord Randall” illustrates this well with the phrase at the end of each verse: “…mother, mak my bed soon, for I’m sick at the heart and I fain wad lie down.”
A Handbook to Literature notes the ballad occurs in very early literature in nearly every nation.
Therefore, in addition to being entertaining, ballads can help us to understand a given culture by showing us what values or norms that culture deemed important.
See A Handbook to Literature, Benet’s Reader’s Encyclopedia, Merriam-Webster’s Encyclopedia of Literature, The Book of Ballads.
Monica Horne, Student, University of North Carolina at Pembroke
C
character (KARE-ec-ter):
a person who is responsible for the thoughts and actions within a story, poem, or other literature.
Characters are extremely important because they are the medium through which a reader interacts with a piece of literature.
Every character has his or her own personality, which a creative author uses to assist in forming the plot of a story or creating a mood.
The different attitudes, mannerisms, and even appearances of characters can greatly influence the other major elements in a literary work, such as theme, setting, and tone.
With this understanding of the character, a reader can become more aware of other aspects of literature, such as symbolism, giving the reader a more complete understanding of the work.
The character is one of the most important tools available to the author.
In the ballad "Edward," for instance, the character himself sets the tone of the ballad within the first stanza.
After reading the first few stanzas, one learns that Edward has murdered his father and is very distraught. His attitude changes to disgust and finally to despair when he realizes the consequences he must face for his actions.
An example of the attitudes and personalities of characters determining the theme is also seen in the book of Genesis.
The proud personality of Cain and the humble personality of Abel help create the conflict for this story. Cain and Abel were brothers, possibly twins, who displayed intense sibling rivalry. God was not pleased with Cain's offerings, but found pleasure in Abel's offerings.
Provoked by God's displeasure with him, Cain murdered his own brother out of jealousy. Victoria Henderson, Student, University of North Carolina at Pembroke
connotation (KAH-nuh-TAE-shun):
an association that comes along with a particular word.
Connotations relate not to a word's actual meaning, or denotation, but rather to the ideas or qualities that are implied by that word. A good example is the word "gold."
The denotation of gold is a malleable, ductile, yellow element.
The connotations, however, are the ideas associated with gold, such as greed, luxury, or avarice. Another example occurs in the Book of Genesis. Jacob says:
“Dan will be a serpent by the roadside, a viper along the path, that bites the horse’s heels so that its rider tumbles backward" (Gen 49:17).
In this passage, Dan is not literally going to become a snake. However, describing Dan as a "snake" and "viper" forces the reader to associate him with the negative qualities that are commonly associated with reptiles, such as slyness, danger, and evil.
Dan becomes like a snake, sly and dangerous to the riders.
Writers use connotation to make their writing more vivid and interesting to read. See A Dictionary of Literary Terms and Literary Theory. Jennifer Lance, Student, University of North Carolina at Pembroke
couplet (KUP-let):
a style of poetry defined as a complete thought written in two lines with rhyming ends.
The most popular of the couplets is the heroic couplet.
The heroic couplet consists of two rhyming lines of iambic pentameter usually having a pause in the middle of each line.
One of William Shakespeare’s trademarks was to end a sonnet with a couplet, as in the poem “Shall I Compare Thee to a Summer’s Day”:
So long as men can breathe or eyes can see,
So long as lives this, and this gives life to thee.
By using the couplet Shakespeare would often signal
the end of a scene in his plays as well.
An example of a scene’s end signaled by a couplet is the end of Act IV of Othello.
The scene ends with Desdemona’s lines:
Good night.
Good night. Heaven me such uses send.
Not to pick bad from bad, but by bad mend.
See A Handbook to Literature, Benet’s Reader’s Encyclopedia, Mirriam-Webster’s Encyclopedia of Literature, Literature:
An Introduction to Fiction, Poetry, and Drama. Monica Horne, Student, University of North Carolina at Pembroke
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D
denotation (DEE-no-TAE-shuhn):
the exact meaning of a word, without the feelings or suggestions that the word may imply.
It is the opposite of “connotation” in that it is the “dictionary” meaning of a word, without attached feelings or associations.
Some examples of denotations are:
1. heart:
an organ that circulates blood throughout the body.
Here the word "heart" denotes the actual organ, while in another context, the word "heart" may connote feelings of love or heartache.
2. sweater: a knitted garment for the upper body.
The word "sweater" may denote pullover sweaters or cardigans, while “sweater” may also connote feelings of warmness or security.
Denotation allows the reader to know the exact meaning of a word so that he or she will better understand the work of literature.
See Literature:
An Introduction to Fiction, Poetry, and Drama, A Glossary of Literary Terms, A Dictionary of Literary Terms and Literary Theory, Webster’s Dictionary.
Shana Locklear, Student, University of North Carolina at Pembroke
denouement (day-noo-mon):
literally meaning the action of untying, a denouement is the final outcome of the main complication in a play or story.
Usually the climax (the turning point or "crisis") of the work has already occurred by the time the denouement occurs.
It is sometimes referred to as the explanation or outcome of a drama that reveals all the secrets and misunderstandings connected to the plot.
In the drama Othello, there is a plot to deceive Othello into believing that his wife, Desdemona, has been unfaithful to him.
As a result of this plot, Othello kills his wife out of jealousy, the climax of the play.
The denounement occurs soon after, when Emilia, who was Desdemona's mistress, proves to Othello that his wife was in fact honest, true, and faithful to him.
Emilia reveals to Othello that her husband, Iago, had plotted against Desdemona and tricked Othello into believing that she had been unfaithful.
Iago kills Emilia in front of Othello, and she dies telling Othello his wife was innocent. As a result of being mad with grief, Othello plunges a dagger into his own heart.
Understanding the denouement helps the reader to see how the final end of a story unfolds, and how the structure of stories works to affect our emotions.
See Encyclopedia of Literature, Miriam Webster.
Shelby Locklear, Student, University of North Carolina at Pembroke
dialogue (di-UH-log):
The conversation between characters in a drama or narrative.
on between two or more characters.
In the anonymous ballad, "Sir Patrick Spens", we are able to observe the dialogue between Sir Patrick Spens and his mirry men.
In the verses 21-24, "Mak hast, mak haste, my mirry men all, Our guid schip sails the morne:
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O say na sae, my master deir, for I feir a deadline storme," dialogue can be seen. According to A Handbook of Literature, dialogue serves several functions in literature.
It moves the action along in a work and it also helps to characterize the personality of the speakers, which vary depending on their nationalities, jobs, social classes, and educations.
It also gives literature a more natural, conversational flow, which makes it more readable and enjoyable.
By showcasing human interaction, dialogue prevents literature from being nothing more than a list of descriptions and actions.
Dialogue varies in structure and tone depending on the people participating in the conversation and the mood that the author is trying to maintain in his or her writing.
See A Handbook to Literature,The American Heritage Dictionary.
Ramon Gonzalez, Student, University of North Carolina at Pembroke
didactic (di-DAK-tik):
refers to literature or other types of art that are instructional or informative.
In this sense The Bible is didactic because it offers guidance in moral, religious, and ethical matters.
It tells stories of the lives of people that followed Christian teachings, and stories of people that decided to go against God and the consequences that they faced.
The term "didactic" also refers to texts that are overburdened with instructive and factual information, sometimes to the detriment of a reader's enjoyment.
The opposite of "didactic" is "nondidactic."
If a writer is more concerned with artistic qualities and techniques than with conveying a message, then that piece of work is considered to be nondidactic, even if it is instructive. See Encyclopedia of Literature, Benet's Readers Encyclopedia.
Jennifer Baker, University of North Carolina at Pembroke
dramatic monologue (dra-MA-tik mon'-O-lôg):
a literary device that is used when a character reveals his or her innermost thoughts and feelings, those that are hidden throughout the course of the story line, through a poem or a speech.
This speech, where only one character speaks, is recited while other characters are present onstage.
This monologue often comes during a climactic moment in a work and often reveals hidden truths about a character, their history and their relationships.
Also it can further develop a character's personality and also be used to create irony.
The most famous examples of this special type of monologue can be found within the poems of Robert Browning, poem such as "My Last Duchess," "The Bishop Orders his Tomb," and "Andrea Del Santo".
Browning's use of dramatic monologue has a special effect on his works. The revelations of his characters not only develop themselves, but they also create settings within the monologues with their use of vivid imagery.
In Browning's works, the characters almost seem to take control of the story line, creating a poem of their own.
Other authors whose works included dramatic monologues are Robert Frost and T.S. Elliot.
See A Reader's Companion to World Literature.
Jacob Gersh, Student, University of North Carolina at Pembroke
E
elegy (EL-e-je):
a type of literature defined as a song or poem, written in elegiac couplets, that expresses sorrow or lamentation, usually for one who has died.
This type of work stemmed out of a Greek work known as a "elegus," a song of mourning or lamentation that is accompanied by the flut.
Beginning in the 16th century, elegies took the form we know today.
Two famous elegies include Thomas Gray’s "Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard" and Walt Whitman’s "When Lilacs Last in the Dooryard Bloom’d".
Gray’s elegy is notable in that it mourned the loss of a way of life rather than the loss of an individual.
His work, which some consider to be almost political, showed extreme discontent for strife and tyranny set upon England by Oliver Cromwell.
This work also acted as an outlet for Gray’s dissatisfaction with those poets who wrote in accordance with the thoughts and beliefs of the upper class.
In his elegy, Gray mourned for his country and mourned for its citizens. Whitman, inspired by the assassination of Abraham Lincoln, wrote his elegy in its classic form, showing sorrow for the loss of an individual.
See A Reader’s Companion to World Literature, and Dictionary of World Literature.
epigram (ep-e-gram): a short poem or verse that seeks to ridicule a thought or event, usually with witticism or sarcasm.
These literary works were very popular during the Renaissance in Europe in the late 14th century and the Neoclassical period, which began after the Restoration in 1660.
They were most commonly found in classic Latin literature, European and English literature.
In Ancient Greek, an epigram originally meant a short inscription, but its meaning was later broadened to include any very short poems.
Poems that are meditative or satiric all fall into this category.
These short poems formulated from the light verse species, which concentrated on the tone of voice and the attitude of the lyric or narrative speaker toward the subject.
With a relaxed manner, lyricists would recite poems to their subjects that were comical or whimsical.
Samuel Taylor Coleridge (1771-1834), an English poet, essayist and critic, constructed an epigram to show humor in Romanticism.
His thoughts, “On a Volunteer Singer”, compares and contrasts the death of swans with that of humans:
Swans sing before they die- ‘twere no bad thing
Should certain people die before they sing!
The ballad, “Lord Randall” illustrates a young man who set off to meet his one true love and ends up becoming “sick at heart” with what he finds. The young man later arrives home to his family about to die and to each family member he leaves something sentimental.
When asked what he leaves to his true love, he responds:
I leave her hell and fire…
This epigram tried to depict what happens to love gone sour.
Epigrams have been used throughout the centuries not only to criticize but also to promote improvement.
See Benet’s Reader’s Encyclopedia, Webster’s Third New International Dictionary (unabridged), and A Glossary of Literary Terms.
Melanie P.
Stephens, Student, University of North Carolina at Pembroke
F
figurative language (fig-YOOR-a-tive LAN-gwije): a type of language that varies from the norms of literal language, in which words mean exactly what they say.
Also known as the "ornaments of language," figurative language does not mean exactly what it says, but instead forces the reader to make an imaginative leap in order to comprehend an author's point.
It usually involves a comparison between two things that may not, at first, seem to relate to one another.
In a simile, for example, an author may compare a person to an animal:
"He ran like a hare down the street" is the figurative way to describe the man running and "He ran very quickly down the street" is the literal way to describe him.
Figurative language facilitates understanding because it relates something unfamiliar to something familiar.
Some popular examples of figurative language include a simile and metaphor.
See A Handbook to Literature, A Dictionary of Literary Terms and Literary Theory, and A Glossary of Literary Terms. Charla Cobbler, Student, University of North Carolina at Pembroke
flashback (flash-BAK):
“an interruption of the chronological sequence (as of a film or literary work) of an event of earlier occurrence” (Merriam, 288).
A flashback is a narrative technique that allows a writer to present past events during current events, in order to provide background for the current narration.
By giving material that occurred prior to the present event, the writer provides the reader with insight into a character's motivation and or background to a conflict.
This is done by various methods, narration, dream sequences, and memories (Holman et al, 197).
For example, in the Book of Matthew, a flashback is used when Joseph is the governor of Egypt. Upon seeing his brothers after many years, Joseph “remembered his dreams” of his brothers and how they previously sold him into slavery (NIV, 69). Another example would be the ballad of “The Cruel Mother.
” Here, a mother is remembering her murdered child.
As she is going to a church, she remembers her child born, grow, and die.
Later she thinks back to further in her past to remember how her own mother was unkind to her (Kennedy et al, 626-627).
Arthur Miller’s “Death of a Salesman” uses flashback to relate Willy Loman’s memories of the past.
At one point, Willy is talking with his dead brother while playing cards with Charley, reliving a past conversation in the present.
This shows a character that is mentally living in the present with the memories and events of the past (Roberts et al, 1232).
By understanding flashbacks, the reader is able to receive more details about the current narration by filling in the details about the past.
Melanie Stephens, Student, University of North Carolina at Pembroke
G
genre (ZHAHN-ruh):
a type of literature.
We say a poem, novel, story, or other literary work belongs to a particular genre if it shares at least a few conventions, or standard characteristics, with other works in that genre.
For example, works in the Gothic genre often feature supernatural elements, attempts to horrify the reader, and dark, foreboding settings, particularly very old castles or mansions.
Edgar Allan Poe's short story "The Fall of the House of Usher" belongs to the Gothic genre because it takes place in a gloomy mansion that seems to exert supernatural control over a man who lives in it.
Furthermore, Poe attempts to horrify the reader by describing the man's ghastly face, the burial of his sister, eerie sounds in the house, and ultimately the reappearance of the sister's bloody body at the end of the story.
Other genres include the pastoral poem, epic poem, elegy, tragic drama, and bildungsroman.
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An understanding of genre is useful because it helps us to see how an author adopts, subverts, or transcends the standard practices that other authors have developed. See A Handbook to Literature, Benet's Reader's Encyclopedia.
Mark Canada, English professor, University of North Carolina at Pembroke
Gothic (goth-IK):
a literary style popular during the end of the 18th century and the beginning of the 19th.
This style usually portrayed fantastic tales dealing with horror, despair, the grotesque and other “dark” subjects.
Gothic literature was named for the apparent influence of the dark gothic architecture of the period on the genre.
Also, many of these Gothic tales took places in such “gothic” surroundings. Other times, this story of darkness may occur in a more everyday setting, such as the quaint house where the man goes mad from the "beating" of his guilt in Edgar Allan Poe's “The Tell-Tale Heart.”
In essence, these stories were romances, largely due to their love of the imaginary over the logical, and were told from many different points of view.
This literature gave birth to many other forms, such as suspense, ghost stories, horror, mystery, and also Poe's detective stories.
Gothic literature wasn't so different from other genres in form as it was in content and its focus on the "weird" aspects of life.
This movement began to slowly open may people's eyes to the possible uses of the supernatural in literature. Jerry Taylor, Student, University of North Carolina at Pembroke
H
hyperbole (hi-per-bo-lee):
an extravagant exaggeration.
From the Greek for "overcasting," hyperbole is a figure of speech that is a grossly exaggerated description or statement.
In literature, such exaggeration is used for emphasis or vivid descriptions.
In drama, hyperbole is quite common, especially in heroic drama.
Hyperbole is a fundamental part of both burlesque writing and the “tall tales” from Western America.
The conscious overstatements of these tales are forms of hyperbole.
Many other examples of hyperbole can be found in the romance fiction and comedy genres. Hyperbole is even a part of our day-to-day speech:
‘You’ve grown like a bean sprout’ or ‘I’m older than the hills.’
Hyperbole is used to increase the effect of a description, whether it is metaphoric or comic. In poetry, hyperbole can emphasize or dramatize a person’s opinions or emotions.
Skilled poets use hyperbole to describe intense emotions and mental states.
Othello uses hyperbole to describe his anger at the possibility of Iago lying about his wife’s infidelity in Act III, Scene III of Shakespeare’s play Othello:
If thou dost slander her and torture me,
Never pray more;
abandon all remorse;
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On horror’s head accumulate;
Do deeds to make heaven weep, all earth amazed;
For nothing canst thou to damnation add
Greater than that.
In this passage, Othello is telling Iago that if he is lying then Othello will have no pity and Iago will have no hope for salvation.
Adding horrors with still more horrors, Othello is describing his potential rage.
Othello even declares that the Earth will be confounded with horror at Othello’s actions in such a state of madness.
See A Glossary of Literary Terms , A Handbook to Literature. Andy Stamper, Student, University of North Carolina at Pembroke
I
irony (i-RAH-nee): a literary term referring to how a person, situation, statement, or circumstance is not as it would actually seem. Many times it is the exact opposite of what it appears to be.
There are many types of irony, the three most common being verbal irony, dramatic irony, and cosmic irony.
Verbal irony occurs when either the speaker means something totally different than what he is saying or the audience realizes, because of their knowledge of the particular situation to which the speaker is referring, that the opposite of what a character is saying is true.
Verbal irony also occurs when a character says something in jest that, in actuality, is true.
In Julius Caesar, Marc Antony’s reference to Brutus being an honorable man is an example of verbal irony.
Marc Antony notes all of the good deeds Julius Caesar did for his people while, more than once,
he asks the rhetorical question, “Did this in Caesar seem ambitious?”
Antony uses this rhetorical question to try to convince his audience that Caesar is not ambitious, presenting Brutus as a dishonorable man because of his claim that Caesar was ambitious.
Dramatic irony occurs when facts are not known to the characters in a work of literature but are known by the audience.
In The Gospel According to St.
John, the Pharisees say of Jesus, “Can any good thing come out of Nazareth?”
This is dramatic irony for the reader already knows, according to the author, that Jesus is the Savior of the world and has already done much good for the people by forgiving their sins and healing the sick and oppressed.
The Pharisees are too blinded to see what good actually has come out of Nazareth.
Cosmic irony suggests that some unknown force brings about dire and dreadful events.
Cosmi
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c irony can be seen in Shakespeare’s Othello.
Iago begs his wife to steal Desdemona’s handkerchief so he can use this as conclusive proof that Cassio is having an affair with Desdemona.
At the end of the play, when Othello tells Iago’s wife about the handkerchief, she confesses that Iago put her up to stealing it.
Iago winds up being at Cassio’s mercy.
The very handkerchief Iago thought would allow him to become lieutenant and bring Cassio to ruins was the handkerchief that brought Iago to ruins and exalted Cassio even higher than his position of lieutenant.
Irony spices up a literary work by adding unexpected twists and allowing the reader to become more involved with the characters and plot.
See A Handbook to Literature, The Elements of Fiction Writing:
Characters and Viewpoint.
Robert Bean, Student, University of North Carolina at Pembroke
J
K
L
lyric (LEER-ick):
a lyric is a song-like poem written mainly to express the feelings of emotions or thought from a particular person, thus separating it from narrative poems.
These poems are generally short, averaging roughly twelve to thirty lines, and rarely go beyond sixty lines.
These poems express vivid imagination as well as emotion and all flow fairly concisely.
Because of this aspect, as well as their steady rhythm, they were often used in song.
In fact, most people still see a "lyric" as anything that is sung along to a musical instrument.
It is believed that the lyric began in its earliest stage in Ancient Egypt around 2600 BC in the forms of elegies, odes, or hymns generated out of religious ceremonies.
Some of the more note-worthy authors who have used the lyric include William Blake, William Wordsworth, John Keats, and William Shakespeare-who helped popularize the sonnet, another type of lyric.
The importance of understanding the lyric can best be shown through its remarkable ability to express with such imagination the innermost emotions of the soul.
See The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language. Jerry Taylor, Student, University of North Carolina at Pembroke
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