Civilizations and space ７ ( the expansion speed of Civilizations )

Regarding the formation of a cosmopolitan civilization, the rapid expansion of the Mongol empire must have had a major impact following Islamic civilization. In terms of rapidity, its speed was comparable to the rise of Islamic civilization with the appearance of Muhammad*.

 

*Arab empire expansion chronology and Mongol empire expansion chronology

The expansion rate of the Arab empire

630 Muhammad captured Mecca

632 Muhammad died, Abu Bakr became caliph.

634 Umar became caliph.

636 Battle of Yarmouk (victory against the Byzantines)

637 Battle of Kadeisiyah (victory against Persia)

642 Battle of Nihavand (victory against Persia)

661 Umayyad dynasty established

 

The Islamic powers formed the framework of the Arab empire in only five years after Muhammad's death. And Muwawiah, who later founded the Umayyad dynasty, was the son of Aboosfyan, a former enemy of Muhammad. It took almost 30 years after Muhammad's death to form the Umayyad dynasty.

 

Expansion rate of the Mongol Empire

1206 Mongol unification

1219 Western expedition begun

1227 Genghis Khan died

1234 Ogotai destroyed Jin

1236 Batou begun western expedition

1253 Flag started the west expedition

1279 Yuan destroyed the Southern Song Dynasty

 

The expansion speed of Mongol forces may had been a little slower than the expansion speed of Islamic forces. Over the course of three generations, the Mongol empire expanded. The Southern Song Dynasty did not perish even after about 30 years from the death of Genghis Khan, but Ogotai destroyed Jin in seven years after his death, and it can be said that the Mongol Empire was established at this point.

 

Just as the expansion of Islamic civilization was due to the seizure and expansion of commerce, it seems that the rapid expansion of the Mongol Empire was also the reason for this. Mongolia was based on advanced Islamic civilization, and China (Yuan) did not rely on Chinese civilization either. The Uyghur merchants and Muslim merchants were entrusted with economic management. The Mongolian imagination is clearly connected to modern China's "One Belt, One Road" initiative. Cosmopolitanism in the Yuan and Mongol empires was not necessarily based on religion in Islamic civilization. However, as the Il Khanate, the Kipchak Khanate, and the Chagatai Khanate became Islamic nations, their position was expedient and their religions were pluralistic. However, in places like China, which had a unique civilization, it seems that there was a strong resistance to being assimilated into Islamic civilization, and in the Yuan dynasty, the royal family became inclined to Lamaism, and this was one of the reasons. Although it was originally tilted as one, there seems to be a slightly deeper meaning here*. It is in the sense of the essential difference between Islamic civilization and Chinese civilization.

 

*Il Khanate, Kipchak Khanate, and Chagatai Khanate eventually adopted Islam as the state religion, but in the Yuan dynasty it was changed to Lamaism. Lamaism had a strong shamanic tinge and was very similar to the mental state of the Mongols. On the other hand, in the Chinese civilization, which was later destroyed by the White Lotus sect, the intellectuals were Confucianism, the masses were Buddhism and Taoism, and the economy was controlled by Islam. In the later conquest dynasty, the Qing dynasty respected Confucianism, which is the morality of the elite of Chinese civilization, as a pose to some extent, whereas the original viewed Chinese civilization lightly and at the same time wanted to make his own mental state a religion as it was. It seems that there was. While the other three khanates faced a universal ummah, a social community called the Islamic community, the Yuan faced (from the Mongolian's point of view) no universality. It seems that the veneration of Lamaism was a countermeasure against Chinese civilization, which tended to assert itself strongly, and the dependence on Lamaism became stronger with the decline of the Yuan Dynasty.

 

The establishment of a cosmopolitan civilization in Europe had, to some extent, a spontaneous element. During the First Crusade, Europe made contact with the Seljuk Turks and the Fatimid dynasty, but European civilization in this period was under the power of the Roman papacy, moving from decentralized feudal rule to consolidation. It was also the era when nations began to emerge*. The economic situation of the Byzantine Empire remained as a trading power in the Mediterranean, but it gradually weakened and was replaced by Venice and other Italian cities. This papal system adopted Latin as a common academic language, and established new cosmopolitan universities in theology and law. In the Middle Ages, monasteries and knightly orders cleared the land, and they played a central role in expanding the territory of European civilization.

 

*Participation in the Crusades

1st Crusade (1096-99) Occupied the Holy Land in 99. Kingdom of Jerusalem established.

2nd Crusade (1147-49) organized by German and French monarchs, failed.

3rd Crusade (1189-92) Ayyubid Saladain captured holy land. Organized by Germany, France, and England. Pilgrimage permit agreement only.

The 4th Crusade (1202-1204) did not go to the Holy Land, conquered Constantinople, and established the Latin Empire.

The Fifth Crusade (1216-1221) attacked Egypt and failed.

6th Crusade (1228) Frederick II of Germany secured the Holy Land through diplomacy, which was recaptured by the Seljuk Turks.

7th Crusade (1248-54) Louis IX of France attacked Egypt and failed.

Eighth Crusade (1270), Louis IX of France attacked Tunis, canceled due to King Louis dying of illness.

 

The Crusades took place from 1096 to 1270, about 200 years, during the time of the Popes. In the first half, the influence of Germany: the Holy Roman Emperor was strong, but in the second half, the influence of France was becoming stronger. The Byzantine Empire, which was a trading nation, was taken over by France and Venice (Latin Empire), and Genoa tried to revive Byzantine. Meanwhile, the conflict between the pope and the emperor continued, reaching a peak at the time of Frederick II, but the power of the emperor declined and the power of France, which had allied with the pope, increased. What emerged throughout the Crusades was the rise of the Italian city-states, the rise of the British and French centralized states, the decline of the power of the popes and emperors, and the Black Death due to trade during the 14th and 15th centuries. 1346-1350) spread throughout Europe, and the Hundred Years' War between England and France (1339-1453) prolonged the life of the Italian city-states. 

 

The cosmopolitan characteristics of Islamic civilization began with a religious community (Umma), passed through the tyranny of the Abbasid dynasty, and was shaped and expanded by the gradual universalization of the spiritual world and the separation of the secular state (9th century). In contrast, in European civilization, a spiritual society was formed out of resistance to the secular society (from the activities of the Cluny Abbey to the struggle for the right to sanction), and the Catholic Church, a religious organization responsible for a robust spiritual world, emerged. In the midst of the chaos caused by the invasion of foreigners, I have the feeling that the ``secular society that had been separated'' was entangled in a net. , and as a result, a cosmopolitan civilization was formed. Even if we call it a cosmopolitan civilization, it seems that the formation process of Islamic civilization and European civilization was greatly different. .

 

The influence of the Mongol Empire was added to both Islamic civilization and European civilization, but the development and expansion of Mongolia for the European civilization sphere initially took the northern route that avoided Islamic civilization ( Lubrok and  Marco Polosfather traveled). The cosmopolitanization of European civilization was partly influenced by the cosmopolitan civilization of Islam, but it may be said that it was more influenced by the cosmopolitan civilization of the Mongol Empire. This is because, in the next era, the Age of Discovery, when he traveled around the Cape of Good Hope and headed for Asia, he hoped that there would be a country of Prester Jhon*, and a vast amount of goods would be found beyond Islamic civilization. It was possible to recognize that India was in Southeast Asia within the Mongolian world system, and the major motivation for the activities of the merchants was to use the trade network established during the era of the Mongol Empire. Isn't it (the discovery of the new continent was a by-product of that)? In addition, the spread of the Black Death, which has driven European civilization into a miserable state, originated in the port of Kaffa (Kipchak Khanate) in the Black Sea, and was brought to Genoa by merchant ships. can be said to have received

※Legend of Saint John

A legend believed in Western Europe between the 12th and 16th centuries. It was said that there was a Christian priest king in Asia, and Pope Alexander III and King Louis IX of France sent envoys to attack Muslims.

 

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Civilizations and space ６ ( Civilizations and Early Modern Renaissances )

8 Islamic Civilization Versus European Civilization

 

According to Ichisada Miyazaki's theory of the Renaissance, the Early Modern Renaissance first occurred in West Asia in the 9th century, followed by the Chinese civilization in the 10th century, the Early Modern Renaissance in the Song Dynasty, the Crusades in the 12th century, and the world domination of the Mongol Empire in the 13th century. Later, the early modern Renaissance arose in 14th-century Europe.

 

As for how to understand the early modern period and the Renaissance, the period before that was the Middle Ages, and while the Middle Ages was the period of the nobility, the early modern period was the period of the common people, and the Middle Ages was the period of religion. On the other hand, the early modern period was an era of commerce, and I thought that the restoration of humanity in the classical revival was a phenomenon related to that. Ichisada Miyazaki saw the phenomenon of economic development empowering the common people and forming a culture based on the common people as a Renaissance phenomenon.

 

The cosmopolitan policy initiated by the Umayyad dynasty must have been behind the early modern phenomenon in the Islamic civilization. The unification policy of currency and language (Arab) by Abbul Malik (AC. 685-705) is that.  Economic prosperity created the culture of Muslim commoners, and here again led to the rediscovery of Greek culture.

 

Seen in this way, the teachings of the Qur'an are rich in cosmopolitan elements, such as the teachings of monotheism, the idea of the Ummah*, and the idea of contracts . It provided an opportunity for unification in West Asia, and took time to promote unification. At first, it was a form of politics and tyranny, but through the reorganization of customary laws, social unification was gradually promoted.

 

※Umma  

Muslims were commanded, as their first duty, to build a community (ummah) in which wealth was equitably distributed and compassion was practiced. This was far more important than any doctrine about God.

 

The situation in West Asia spilled over into Chinese civilization as refugees from Sassanid Persia fled east under the Islamic offensive. Internationalism in the Tang Dynasty overlapped with this, but after the Tang and the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period, the aristocratic society collapsed, and in the Northern Song Dynasty, when the Shidaifu  rose to power, Chinese civilization entered the early modern period and a renaissance emerged, according to Miyazaki. I thought about it. If "Renaissance" means the democratization of society, then yes.

 

During the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period, something new was born, and the whole of China was about to become a unified market*, and the Northern Song Dynasty was a period of economic development. It was also an era of technological innovation and three major inventions (gunpowder, compass, and woodblock printing). But it would be difficult to make it as cosmopolitan as Islamic civilization. However, at that time, Chinese civilization itself was a world, and it may be possible to call this a cosmopolitan.

 

*All of China is a unified market 

From the Song dynasty to the middle of the Qing dynasty, China's economy was in the Grand Canal era, with the population concentrated along the Grand Canal and huge commercial cities developing. The Grand Canal was the trunk line for domestic transportation, and the natural rivers that intersected with it became large and small branch lines, forming a nationwide transportation network.

 

During the Northern Song Dynasty, the nomadic peoples around them gained strength and strengthened nationalism.  Islamic civilization and European civilization are characterized by their expansion through religion, and in that sense Chinese civilization has shown unique movements. Even in the Ming dynasty, which seems to be a repetition of the same era as the Song dynasty,* except for the era of the Yongle emperor, Chinese civilization has shown a stance of restraining expansion.

 

*Chinese History of the Ming Dynasty, like a repetition of the Song Dynasty

The history of the Ming dynasty has many parts that repeat the history of the Song Dynasty in particular.The Ming Empire that Taejo predicted would be a nation-state like the Song Dynasty, and the colonies where different races live would be a burden, so it was unnecessary. And from being a single nation state, isolationism was born .

 

Although it is religious, it is a characteristic of Indian civilization that it did not show a very expansive attitude, just like Chinese civilization. Although there was an aspect of development overseas, we can see that Indian and Chinese civilizations were self-contained through material or spiritual fulfillment within their own civilizations. There was a period of overseas expansion, but it may have been common, especially in Indian civilization, for the wealthy to withdraw from economic activities and retire. There seems to have been a morality different from the accumulation of capital in later European civilizations.

 

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Civilizations and space 5 ( comparison between Indian civilization and European civilization )

The establishment of a cosmopolitan civilization was also seen in the Roman Empire, but it declined along the way. The next establishment would be the emergence of Islam, the Islamic civilization (9th century) established after passing through the orthodox caliphate, the Umayyads, and the Abbasid dynasty. The Indian civilization (5th century), which was founded by Hinduism, may also be applicable, but although the productivity of the Indian civilization was large, commerce declined, probably because of the reduction in world trade. The situation in this area was similar to that in medieval Europe, but it was probably a decline due to the destruction of cities and commercial infrastructure due to the invasion of foreigners while the despotic power was weak. Just as Islamic civilization established its cosmopolitan civilization through the rise of the Mamluks, the Sultanate system, and the Iktar system, Indian civilization may have tried to incorporate the Rajputs, but the Rajputs are fragmented and  It may be said that a cosmopolitan type of civilization was established in India by adopting an Islamic civilization after the Delhi Sultanat .

 

Similarly, in medieval Europe, tyrannical power was weak, so invasions of different peoples were repeated. However, the development of civilization differed from that of Indian civilization because, for a long time, the Byzantine Empire had become a powerful wall that prevented the invasion of Islamic civilization, and Roman Catholicism was in opposition to Greek Orthodox Christianity, which led to the organization of the church. Probably because I made progress. Western Europe grew as a cosmopolitan civilization that valued Catholic doctrine. In Western Europe, Latin became the academic language, and the development of church architecture was very similar to the development of Hindu temples, where Sanskrit became the lingua franca of Indian civilization. .

 

During the Middle Ages in Western Europe, which was the germ of future civilization, the Byzantine Empire protected it from Islamic civilization for a long time. In the case of Indian civilization, Rajput (an invader from the perspective of Indian civilization), and the collapse of the Pritihara dynasty, which was part of it, caused the invasion of Islamic civilization (Kazni dynasty). Moreover, within Indian civilization, Hinduism was not as centralized and organized as it was in Western Europe. However, due to the strong hierarchical structure, it was not unified and was ruled by the conquering dynasty of Islamic civilization for a long time.

 

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Civilizations and space 4 ( formation of cosmopolitan civilizations )

Unlike the other three civilizations, which were based on great rivers, European civilization was born from the Mediterranean Sea like great lake . Greece and Rome emerged from the commercial influences of Egypt, Syria and Phoenicia as the agricultural production of the Orient civilizations increased. One of the reasons why Greece did not become an empire (with the exception of the Macedonian dynasty) was that it was not an agricultural civilization based on rivers, but a commerce and money civilization based on the Mediterranean Sea. It seems that So would the Roman Empire (Rome was heavily influenced by Greece*1). Compared to Indian and Chinese civilizations, Islamic civilization also includes a variety of geographical environments and is similar to Greek and Roman civilizations. 

 

*1 Rome influenced by Greece

During the Persian Wars, Persia and Carthage were linked, and Greece and Rome (against Etruria) were linked. Macedonia and Carthage were united in the dispute over Sicily, and Rome was united with the League of Greek Cities. While the activities of the Greek cities and the Roman cities showed some similarities and differences, both Greece and Rome continued to circulate in various forms of their ``government'', inheriting trade areas. I feel like In modern terms, it may be said that Hegemony moved from Greece to Rome in the Mediterranean world - economy.

*2 The Persian Wars, the Peloponnesian Wars, and the Punic Wars are all ancient wars, but just as Toynbee was inspired by them, there is an impression that these wars have something in common with modern times because these wars were fought over trade spheres. The fact that it was a battle must have been a big factor. Gradually, the Roman Empire began to grant Roman citizenship to dependent territories, but this idea itself was cosmopolitan. In other words, the major characteristic of the cosmopolitan type is that it is a cosmopolitan type society, regardless of the system or era, but the "world economy" has become a system of exploitation through two pipes that make use of internal disparities and external disparities. It seems that Toynbee drew up the idea of the rise of the proletariat inside and the rise of belligerent groups outside.

 

 

There was a time when European civilization tried to preserve the unity of imperialism like Chinese civilization. Such was the flow from the start of the Roman Empire, through the era of the Five Good Emperors, to the era of confusion, and eventually to the establishment of the Byzantine Empire. The Byzantine Empire was a trading nation and had long served as a bulwark for Roman civilization, but in the west it was invaded by Germanic tribes and others, and the period of integration (the Kingdom of the Franks) was short-lived. It continued to receive it frequently*, and European civilization was formed in it, accompanied by separation.

* The Avars and Magyars attacked the Holy Roman Empire, and the Saracens and Normans attacked the Merovingian and Carolingian dynasties respectively.

 

Even though they were cosmopolitan civilizations, the difference between Islamic civilization and European civilization is that Islam spread the Koran, Arabic, and the immigration of Arabs gradually spread, and  that civilization repeated expansion movements, while the Roman Empire as commerce declined,* Christianity spread. As a result, a cosmopolitan civilization has been formed by taking in what various ethnic groups have entered. In this sense, the cosmopolitan type of European civilization seems to have been formed in a way that differs greatly from the cosmopolitan type of Islamic civilization. Also, Christianity did not expand in the same way as Islamic civilization during this period, and the confusion caused by repeated ethnic invasions may have been great for a long time.

 

*Economic decline in the Roman Empire

Since the time of Diocletian, social status and occupation have been fixed, creating a system reminiscent of the Indian caste. First of all, it was the property class (council members) in the city that was placed at the center of state control. State control over trade unions of traders and craftsmen was likewise strengthened. In this way, the cities that formed the cells of Greco-Roman society fell, and the measures taken by the government for military personnel and government officials during a period of instability (inflation) in the value of money in the sector of state finance ) produced an irregular national economy.

 

A surplus was generated by the improvement of agricultural productivity, and it became possible to distribute it, cities were established, and commerce began. The earliest trade began in the Orient. The civilizations of Mesopotamia and Egypt arose, leading to the integration of them into Assyria and Achaemenid Persia, which led to the establishment of Phenicia, Greece, and Rome. On the other hand, in the east, it influenced the distant Indus civilization* and the Yellow River civilization. In India, a wave of Aryans, separate from the Persians, surged.

 

*Indus Valley Civilization and Mesopotamian Civilization

Which came first, the Mesopotamian Civilization or the Indus Valley Civilization? The Indus civilization is said to have been around 2500-1800 BC, and the Mesopotamian civilization around 3000 BC. And if the migration of Indo-European tribes was around 1500 BC, it is said that the Indus civilization was not destroyed by the Aryans, but was destroyed before that. The Indus Valley civilization is said to have spread farther than Mesopotamia, Egypt, and the Yellow River civilization*, but it is said to have disappeared without a trace. It is believed that a variety of factors, including weather, logging, and changes in watersheds, contributed to their disappearance.

 

There were great differences between the urban civilization of Mesopotamia and the Indus civilization in terms of the form of the city and the lifestyle of the inhabitants. Also, the method of carving cuneiform characters on clay tablets was not known in the Indus civilization.

 

In addition to the two major language families (Semitic-Hamitic and Indo-European), there were peoples of unknown origin, including the Sumerians, who built the first urban civilization on the Mesopotamian plains, collectively known as the "Japhetic" language family.

It was the Sumerians who built these city-states centering on the southern part of Babylonia, and they laid the foundation of Mesopotamian civilization.

 

Considering the above, the development of bathing facilities, the improvement of urban planning, etc., are somewhat similar to those of Rome. *Although the deeper part of the stratum is unknown, there might be a possibility that the Indus civilization, the Dravidian civilization, was older than the Mesopotamian civilization. Considering this fact, the fact that it was an unknown ethnic group, and that it was not cuneiform from the beginning, it may be possible to consider the theory that the Indus civilization preceded it.

  

It should be noted that around the 5th century BC, many influential religious figures and philosophers were born, such as Zoroaster in Persia, Socrates in Greece, Buddha in India, and Confucius in China. The establishment of a "complicated human society" was considered to be the background to this, and the existence of cities would have been assumed. And the emergence of cities led to the formation of nations and empires. Alexander's Empire, the Roman Empire, the Mauryan Empire, the Qin-Han Empire, and the Persian Empire.

  

Zarathustra 6th-7th century BC

Socrates 469-399 BC

Shaka 563-483 BC

Confucius 552-479 BC

 

However, it seems that these empires were different. While Greece and Rome were civilizations centered on trade (markets) based on the network of the Mediterranean Sea, Persia, India, and China were civilizations centered on agricultural productivity and despotic power. . Although Indian civilization (especially the Satavarhana and Pallava dynasties in the south) may be a little different. And tyrannical power would have been better to prevent the nomadic tribes from constantly invading from the north.

 

The establishment of these empires cannot be regarded as the establishment of cosmopolitans, because it was a space where peoples different from cosmopolitans live based on common values rather than by coercive power. Rather than being a cosmopolitan type of civilization, the Byzantine Empire also transformed into an empire like Persia and China.

 

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Civilizations and space 3 ( cosmopolitan civilization and local civilization are replaced )

6 Cosmopolitan civilization and Local civilization are replaced.

 

However, cosmopolitan civilization and local civilization may be replaced. Chinese civilization and other civilizations relatively repeatedly exerted their unifying power and continued to renew the shifts of local civilizations, but after the Sung Dynasty, conquering dynasties ruled in the order of Liao, Jin, Yuan, and Qing (but Ming in between). On the other hand, India was not unified after the Mauryan dynasty until the Gupta dynasty, Vardhana Dynasty, the Three Kingdoms*1 period, Delhi Sultanat, and the Mughal Empire. The Mughal Empire was a conquering dynasty. Looking at Chinese civilization and Indian civilization, it seems that local civilization and cosmopolitan civilization alternate, but one major trend can be sensed. The values that were established in ancient times remained strong, and the phenomenon of introverted mass psychology, which is the driving force of civilization, was remarkable. It is also an interesting similarity that the Chinese civilization and the Indian civilization were greatly different in the north and south.

 

India's Three Kingdoms Period (around 750-975), a three-way state of the Pala Dynasty, the Rashtrak Dynasty, and the Pretihara Dynasty. China's Three Kingdoms period (around 220-280) was fought by Wei, Wu, and Shu after the fall of the Later Han Dynasty, and its history was recorded. In China, the revival of the dynasty was always expected, and the dynasty that was established in the next generation compiled the history of the previous dynasty. Before the Three Kingdoms period of India, there was the Vardhana dynasty, but although it is not known whether there was a unity like the Later Han, the countries fought over Kanawji (the capital of the Vardhana dynasty) in the middle reaches of the Ganges.

Indian civilization and Chinese civilization are included in the classification of local civilizations with strong unity as a whole, because they have the resilience to unify even if they are divided. However, the resilience of Indian civilization was considerably weaker than that of Chinese civilization.

The Chinese civilization had a strong element of politics (government through imperial examinations), while the Indian civilization had a strong element of culture (religion). There was also a similarity in the transition from the upper and middle reaches to the Ganges (lower reaches). Both were agricultural cultures, and as productivity improved, cities arose. In the Chinese civilization, there were 100 families, and in the Indian civilization, there were 62views*, and nations arose, and eventually empires. And although the empire was divided and weakened from the inside and the outside respectively, the Chinese civilization and the Indian civilization were revived each time.

* 62views

In Buddhist texts, the new ideas and thinkers that emerged during this period are referred to as '62 views'. Sixty-two, in many senses, corresponds to the “hundred” of the 100 families of China. It is interesting to note that similar developments in the history of thought took place in China and India at exactly the same time, with similar political, economic and social backgrounds. And after this, Emperor Shi Huang, Ashoka, the emperor and king who created the basic model of Chinese civilization and Indian civilization, appeared.

 

I have mentioned European civilization and Islamic civilization as cosmopolitan civilizations, but Islamic civilization, like Chinese civilization and Indian civilization, was formed on the rubble of the oriental civilization with the Nile River and the Tigris-Euphrates River as the mother of the great rivers. was done. Agricultural production increased, cities were established, nations arose, and empires were established. It is a series of empires that started with Assyria, but Hellenism and others were added to the soil of such an oriental empire, and finally, the innovation of the social community (Umma) generated by the Arabs who were the peripheral part became Islamic civilization.  After going through the Umayyad dynasty (ruled by the Arabs) and the Abbasid dynasty*1 ( Islamic empire), Islamic civilization was divided, and from there it shifted to a cosmopolitan form (Islamic system)*2.

 

*1 During the heyday of the Abbasid dynasty, in the second half of the era of Harun al-Rashid, the Barmak family, which had been the prime minister and high officials, was suddenly purged by the caliph Harun al-Rashid. The Barmak family is originally from Balkh (the former capital of Bactria) in Central Asia and was originally Buddhist. After Al-Rashid, disputes arose over the issue of succession, followed by the rebellion of Khorasan, the establishment of the Saffarid dynasty, and the establishment of the Samanid dynasty. Before long, the Mamluk (Turkish slave group) took over the Abbasid court, and the center of Islamic civilization moved from Baghdad to Damascus and Cairo. The power of the caliphate as a despot was weakened, the power of the secular monarchs dispersed, but the Islamic civilization itself remained united.

 

*2 Cosmopolitan form (Islamic system)

It was ruled by the Mongols around the 14th century, and it was a little later, but if you read Ibn Battuta's "A Tour of the Three Continents," you can get a glimpse of the cosmopolitan atmosphere of Islamic civilization. Ibn Battuta ended up as a kadi (law official) in his hometown of Morocco, but the story depicts a situation in which he was welcomed as a highly educated jurist in India and the Maldives. From the 9th century Islamic jurisprudence developed in Islamic civilization, while mysticism (Sufism) also developed, and the Islamic society, the Umma, expanded. Although Ibn Battuta's time preceded the height of Islamic civilization, the Ottoman Turks, the Safavids, and the Mughal Empire, such cosmopolitan consciousness continued.

 

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Civilizations and space 2 ( cosmopolitan civilizations and local civilizations )

4 Cosmopolitan civilizations

 

Civilizations that are separated from each other but share some common values and have active exchange of information and trade are called cosmopolitan civilizations.

 

Such civilizations include Islamic civilization (after the Umayyad dynasty) and European civilization (from the late Middle Ages through the emergence of capitalism to the present day). At first, there was a strong focus on the introduction of the monetary system and common languages (Arabic and Latin)*1, but it later became politically divided into nations and transformed into a world-economy*2.

  

*1 The earliest example of the introduction of a monetary system and a common language at about the same time may be that of the First Emperor of Qin (around 213 BC). At first, China was also a collection of several nations, but after the Qin and Han dynasties, it went beyond the cosmopolitan type to a despotic type of government, and became a regional civilization. Later, during the Umayyad period, Abbul-Malik (ruled 685-705) introduced a common money and language (Arabic). In European civilization, Latin was the common language in the west and Greek was the common language in the east. A common currency did not materialize, especially in the west. In European civilization, money was used in each region, and a network between cities was gradually formed over a wide area, resulting in the establishment of a cosmopolitan civilization.

 

*2 world-economy  Fernand Braudel's concept: It does not mean the world economy, but refers to the state in which several nations gather to form a single economic system.

 

 

5 Local civilizations

 

What are the characteristics of local civilizations in contrast to cosmopolitan civilizations? A civilization that has a strong center and is strongly controlled by politics or culture at the center is called a Local civilization.

 

I mentioned Chinese civilization and Indian civilization as such civilizations.

 

Chinese civilization was modeled by Qin Shi Huang, and Indian civilization was modeled by Ashoka of the Mauryan dynasty. However, as mentioned earlier, Indian civilization was often politically divided. Both the Chinese civilization and the Indian civilization may have initially had a situation like the "world economy" mentioned earlier, but they could not expand outward like European civilization and Islamic civilization.

 

Chinese civilization*1 and Indian civilization*2 were classified as local civilizations in that expansion was slowed down and internal despotism and control increased. It may be said that Chinese civilization is controlled by politics, and Indian civilization is controlled by culture. The impetus for Chinese civilization to become such a civilization was the introduction of the imperial examination system by the Sui Dynasty, the establishment of a financial state in the Northern Song Dynasty, and the development of control over the surrounding ethnic groups through economic policies, followed by the conquests of the Liao, Jin, Yuan, and Qing dynasties. It became a civilization ruled by a dynasty.

 

*1 The order is Qin, Former Han, Later Han, Wei and Jin Southern and Northern Dynasties, Sui, Tang, Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms , Northern Song/Liao , Southern Song /Jin, Yuan , Ming , Qing , Republic of China,  the People's Republic of China (underlined parts are dynasties ruled by non-Han people).

 

*2 Transition of Indian civilization Indus Civilization Early Vedas, Late Vedas, Kosala Magadha, Maurya, Satavahana Kushana , Gupta Pallava Pandya, Vardana Charukya Pallava, Three Kingdoms (Puitihara: Rajput dynasties, Rashtrakuta, Pala )・Chola, Slave Dynasty , Delhi Sartanat Vijayanagar, Mughal Empire , Indian Empire , Indian Republic

The rise and fall of dynasties in Indian civilization was violent in the north and relatively stable in the south.

 

In contrast, what is interesting is that Indian civilization became a local civilization because Buddhism and Jainism, which were commercial powers during the Gupta dynasty, declined, and Hinduism, which was linked to the dynasty, became a local indigenous religion. This is the point of absorbing religion, and rather the complex caste system deepened during the Rajput dynasties. After the Gupta Dynasty, although there were differences between the north and the south, India was culturally common, but politically divided, a state similar to European civilization in the Middle Ages.

 

But unlike European civilization, Indian civilization was conquered by Islamic civilization. The slave dynasty, the Delhi sultanat, the Mughal empire, the Indian empire and the Indian civilization also became a civilization dominated by the conquering dynasty.

Around the time of the Mongol Empire, the cosmopolitan Islamic civilization came to encompass the Chinese and Indian civilizations, both of which were local civilizations, for a short period of time.

 

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Civilizations and space 1 ( Each civilization is a pillar that supports the earth )

Civilizations and space

 

1 Each civilization is a pillar that supports the earth.

 

Today, the planet Earth itself is like a temple to mankind. It would be a temple supported by at least four pillars.

 

The temple may be a lighthouse that illuminates the vast universe.

 

2 This temple has four main pillars.

 

 The four pillars are European civilization, Islamic civilization, Indian civilization, and Chinese civilization.

 Why are these four pillars of civilization?

This is because each of these four pillars is the center of a large vortex, and has influenced the semi-civilization* around it. Christianity was at the center of European civilization. Islam was at the center of Islamic civilization. The center of Indian civilization was Hinduism, and in ancient times Buddhism. Confucianism was at the center of Chinese civilization.

 

*A semi-civilization is a smaller civilization under the influence of the vortex of civilization.

 

Among them, Islamic civilization is the only one whose religion is the name of the civilization. This is because there are a wide variety of regional names, such as North Africa, West Asia, Central Asia, and Southeast Asia.

European civilizations are diverse, including North and South America, Russia, and Oceania, so it may be possible to call them Christian civilizations. However, it is not called as such because North and South America and Oceania  cnsisted of  immigrants from Europe, and Russia was also established by Normans and Slavs, and on top of that, they are the heirs of Greek Orthodox Christianity, so it is called European civilization. Called by the name of the region*.

 

*European civilization is composed of Latin, Germanic, and Slavic races, so the name of the region is attached to the head of the civilization, not the religion.

 

Although there are geographical and racial differences, Islamic civilizations differ in their origins. Before that, there was the Orient, into which Mesopotamian and Egyptian civilizations flowed, the Assyrian Empire and the Persian Empire, to which Hellenism joined. After the birth of Islamic civilization, Turkish and Mongolian culture was added to Arab culture, and it gradually spread and influenced the surrounding area. Islamic civilization turned out to be a very complex civilization (although Islamics formation and ideas were very simple). This is why Islamic civilization is not called by name of regions .

 

3 Civilizations include cosmopolitan civilizations and regional civilizations.

 

Cosmopolitan civilizations are civilizations like European civilization and Islamic civilization, while regional civilizations are civilization like Chinese civilization and Indian civilization*. The "cosmopolitan type" is a community centered on a network of nations with thriving trade, while the "regional type" is a community centered on despotic rule.

 

*Indian civilization may not be unconditionally a regional civilization. Indian civilization is not a civilization like the Chinese civilization, where unified dynasties repeatedly rise and fall. The period of division was long, and the situation was often different between the north and the south.

 

Although the Indian civilization was often politically divided, the cultural state was largely unified by Hinduism after the Gupta dynasty. In addition, before the British Industrial Revolution, India was very economically developed by exporting cotton cloth (Even after being incorporated into the British Empire, Britain's balance of payments deficit was covered by India's current account surplus). . Even before that, the Kushan dynasty and the Satavahana dynasty had a cosmopolitan element, such as the discovery of gold coins of the Roman Empire. However, what is not included in the cosmopolitan type here is that the expansion of Buddhism stopped midway (although Buddhism and Hinduism also advanced into Southeast Asia *１), and that Indian civilization somehow withdrew halfway through. Since it seems, it was included in the regional type civilization. This is markedly different from European civilization and Islamic civilization, in which trade continued to expand along with missionary work.

 

*１　There are two stages of “Indianization”. Around the time of the Satavahana Dynasty (1st century AD), Indian civilization expanded to Southeast Asia, where port city states were established. Later, during the Gupta period, Hinduism and Buddhism influenced Southeast Asia (late 4th century to early 5th century).

 

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Civilizations and time 14 ( Social science and various forces )

History, or social science, has long developed through causal relationships, descriptions, and the diversification of viewpoints. seems to have come And while the natural sciences began to develop based on mechanics, the social sciences tended to be more medical and biological. Academic development has been made in the sense of treating social problems, but just as medicine and biology have greatly benefited from the achievements of physics, social sciences have learned much from mechanics and physics. maybe we should start. The starting point will be the analysis of various forces in civilization and history. In the social sciences, economics may have some similarities to physics. Economics can be said to be a science that believes in certain powers. A kind of force is based on the idea that "price or something equivalent to a price" serves as a signal and influences the behavior of the demand side and the supply side, that is, the price can be a force that motivates human behavior. That's why. Various factors have caused the price function to stop working, which has led to differences of opinion. Has economics oversimplified human society? The position of economics has been the position of the United States and the viewpoint of economic news, but it does not seem that the various civilizations of the world will accept it as it is.

 

Why did the achievements of physics have had an impact on other disciplines, and why have they provided a universal foundation? It may be hinted at by thinking about the difference between economics and physics. The difference between economics and physics seems to lie in the belief in a single force or the existence of forces. While economics believes in the power of price, physics focuses on the individuality of various forces (gravity, light, electric power, magnetic force, nuclear power) and attempts to explain them in a unified manner.

 

Applying this to the theory of civilization, Europe, America, Russia, the Middle East, Africa, India, and China are all different ``fields,'' and each ``field'' has its own unique characteristics. ” and are working. Is it difficult, or even impossible, to explain this in terms of a single force, the "price" in economics ? Therefore, the way of thinking that provides hints for the diversification and integration of the world should not be based on current economics, but rather on physics.

 

What are the unique powers of each “place” or “civilization”, and what are the concepts and theories that make it easier to explain them? As I have said so far, "values" that change over time and based on them, people want "richer lives", or "community development" based on "values", and trying to return to what is inherent in human society. Isn't it taking into consideration .

 

By applying such things to each civilization, it will be possible to understand how different civilizations think and act in that way. Although the power game-like power factor also accompanies history.

 

With that out of the way, let's wrap up. What I have been thinking about in this article is what is the "motive force that changes history." And I confirmed the existence of various forces in this kind of scholarship and social science. Toynbee and Spengler had already intuitively grasped things like "trends" in the history of civilization, but the position of this paper is neither an energetic theory like Spengler, nor a fatalism like Spengler, nor a function theory like Toynbee. I didn't. Nor was he in the position of reading characteristics and functions common to one civilization (e.g., European civilization) and extending them to other civilizations. On the other hand, it was also different from the position of historical science that pursues causal relationships.

 

The concept of "the driving force to change civilization and history" is similar to the position Newton took in "Principia", and in the social sciences, it is necessary to start with definitions of various forces and analyze the characteristics of each force to establish a more solid foundation. I take the position that it is possible to obtain In the social sciences, the value of the subject is inevitably large, but that would be like discussing the characteristics of the earth or the moon individually when explaining gravitational force in physics.

 

The concepts of minimum force are ``technical efficiency force'', ``social structure force'', ``reaction force'', and ``value''.  and  environment give direction to these.

 

In order to prove the existence of various forces such as "technical efficiency force", "social structure force", "reaction force", "value", and "environment", we have no choice but to investigate the history of each civilization, draw up historical facts, and make inferences. . However, if we make a hypothesis to gain some perspective on the work of induction, the following five principles may be mentioned.

 

1 Values change over time.

2 Technical efficiency force is a function of value.

3 Social structural force is a function of value.

4 Reaction force is a function of value.

5 Environmental Principles (Field Principles*)

 

These five principles are the principles of various forces in social science that are important in inferring what kind of problems each civilization is currently facing and how they are trying to solve them. These ideas were born from the synthesis of the considerations of past historians, but they are also considered to be important concepts of force as tools for predicting the future. In addition to this, the issue of the emergence of creative rulers and the ability of the masses to imitate, a theme discovered by Toynbee, may become important.

 

Also, in this paper, time is initially regarded as a resource, and on the left-hand side, the production volume of creation, which is the output produced by time (the sum of the production volume of mental creation and the production volume of material creation) is shown, On the right-hand side, we place technological efficiency, social structure, and counteracting forces as factors that affect the production of creations, and assume that these forces are influenced by the direction of value that changes over time.

 

In this formula with time as one axis, time itself exists as a resource, but it is neutral and does not form anything unless the players in each history invest it.  But historical players weren't aware that the value they held was a function of time and that they existed above it.

 

When thinking about formulas with time as one axis, it is easy to understand that what forms the basis of their development is how we perceive "value." Because in the time axis, by specifying a certain point in time and specifying values, the technological efficiency, social structural force, and reaction force of that society are selected and specified, and the spiritual creation, material one . This is because the amount of production of the creative creation is determined. Therefore, it is necessary to think about the structure of value. Value is the premise of various forces, but even at one point in time, it can be diverse ( various genres), and in a sense, it is like a "group in the image space". It may take shape. On another occasion, I would like to consider the theme of "civilization and value."

 

A formula with time as one axis is a 'relational formula' that expresses the path through which time, a resource that has no meaning by itself, leads to the production of creations. Values (groups in image space) as a function of time influence technological efficiency forces, social structure forces, and reaction forces, and these factors produce mental and physical creations (substantial space). and This is based on the idea of the production function in economics, but I also touched on the problem that there is no common element that connects the right-hand side and the left-hand side. The problem with this formula is that each concept is not quantified, and neither the technical efficiency force, social structure force, and reaction force on the right side nor the mental creation on the left side is quantified, nor is the value. It has not been quantified, and how much force or value will be converted into data and digitized, or whether something like "currency" that converts value or power will be invented. I guess it depends.

 

From a different point of view, this "relational formula" can be said to be a formula that systematically expresses the structure of mental energy. Value changes over time. However, it is also possible to think that it will change through the "cross-cutting" contact of economy, politics, and culture. On the other hand, this paper recognizes that there is something like "mental energy that fluctuates only in relation to time", and that it is stronger than "cross-cutting relationships". This perception is inspired by Toynbee's idea of civilization, that civilization commits suicide, that the collapse of civilization does not come from outside enemies, but from within. In other words, the powers move in a fused manner during the period of development, but move separately during the period of decline.

 

The model we are trying to build is naive. However, there are some obvious differences from traditional historical analyses. It analyzes the various forces of civilization change and stands on the viewpoint of whether they can be utilized in the future. And this is precisely what Spengler and Toynbee were trying to do intuitively and boldly in the early days of civilization studies. And then Braudel and Wallerstein appeared, and something may be forming. Just as feudalism gave rise to sovereign nations, it would correspond to the emergence of "civilized economies" from sovereign nations.

 

From a policy perspective, for example, countries like Japan are good at learning models from other countries and developing, but are not good at creating their own models. For example, to avoid unnecessary conflicts between countries with different nationalities, there are a number of situations in which the idea of this model can be applied.

 

Understanding and manipulating value. Understanding and manipulating forces. This model is oriented to adjusting the driving force through manipulation in this way, and proposes one of the hypotheses.

 

In addition, as the battle against the environment is now entering the stage of the battle against time, it seems that this model has the potential to respond as one of the worldviews seen from the resource of time.  After the era of the world system, it will be the era of various civilizations, and what is necessary for them to coexist and co-prosper will become important.

 

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Civilizations and time 1３ ( Social science and various forces )

I have thought about what the forces mean, and I have thought about the five principles and what they mean. Now let's go back to the expression Cs+Cp=F(E,S,R)=F{g(f(t)),h(f(t)),R}. This formula is inspired by the concept of the production function* in economics. The formula states that the amount of production is determined by the amount of investment, labor force, and technology input. The formulas in this paper express the 'relationships' in which creations are determined by the input of values, technological efficiencies, social structural forces, and counteracting forces. No attempt has been made to express the function numerically.

 

*Production function

Thinking about the production function in economics, it is possible to calculate the amount of production, and it may be possible to calculate the amount of input capital and labor. This is because these concepts can be expressed by the ruler of "money." It expresses what kind of production can be achieved by inputting the ratio of capital and labor. It is unclear at this stage whether it will be possible to do so, and whether it will be possible to express technological efficiency, social structure, and reaction force like  terms of money. It is here that one realizes that economics is a discipline built on concepts based on "quantity" such as money, commodities, and services. On the other hand, it also makes me wonder if civilization studies can be constructed with concepts and worldviews that are different from those of economics. And in the era of big data and AI, the foundation would be established.

 

It may be said that the 19th century was the age of physics and the 20th century was the age of economics. As a result, we have entered an era in which many people act with "economic ideas." The pattern of behavior is based on profit motives, and the value is placed primarily on ``economic reasons''. The number of “rational individuals” may have increased, but bubbles and recessions have continued to occur. Recently, I have come to feel that economic value is not everything for human beings. What, then, are the concepts necessary for civilization studies that are different from economics? Is it really possible for civilization studies to have a concept that serves as a standard unit like "money" in economics?

 

Since money expresses the amount of production, investment, and the amount of labor, it is established as a mathematical formula. On the other hand, the above formula for the driving force is not a mathematical formula but a formula that simply expresses the relationship. Creations are just creations, and can be products, philosophies, or cultures. In contrast, technical efficiency, social structural strength, and counteracting force, rather than quantitatively, are factors that improve people's lives, such as technological innovation and the economy. If it's a factor that causes it, or if it's a counteracting force, it may be the factor that tries to return to the original.

 

In the social sciences as well, there are two grounds for establishing these various concepts of forces. This is probably because the ``problem of quality and quantity'' is a peculiar factor as the ``problem of the structure of various forces''.

In order to make analysis possible in the social sciences, social sciences should no longer focus on the characteristics of various forces like gravity, electric power, and magnetic force, and build a systematic worldview, like in physics textbooks.  Technological efficiency (the force to improve life), social structure force (the force to develop the collective strength of the community), and counteracting force (the force to return to the original) are the discoveries of various forces in social science. It seems that clarifying the characteristics and structures is necessary as a method for analyzing the individuality of each civilization.

 

In a sense, as I briefly touched on in Ranke, world history is still limited to metaphysics by historians.

Another thing is that the concept of various forces in social science is the combined force of the qualitative force of some creative human beings and the quantitative force of many people who imitate it. Isn't it different from the concept of force in Toynbee called this force "Mimesis".

With that in mind, when we think about forces in the social sciences, we have technical efficiency force, qualitative force, and quantitative force. Social structural force, qualitative force, and quantitative force. A combination of reaction force, qualitative force, and quantitative force may arise. There will also be combinations of technical efficiency and social structure, social structure and reaction, and reaction and technical efficiency. Other combinations like this, that is, syntheses of forces, will appear, but the premise for this is the analysis of the various forces. In the first stage, we extract the “force to improve life” in history, and consider under what circumstances the creative rulers who caused it appear, and under what conditions the people who imitate them. It is necessary to work to verify whether it appeared below and how fast it proliferated. In the same way, under what circumstances did the creative ruler who extracted the ``force to develop the community'' emerge, and under what conditions did the people who imitate it emerge? It is verified whether it appeared and at what speed it proliferated, and the reaction force is also verified in the same way.

 

However, this is not the end of the story, and the issue of "synthesis" of these various factors is a problem, but it will take a long time to reach that point. Series", Hari Seldon's psychohistory* is expected to be a long way off.

 

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Civilizations and time 12 ( the environmental principle, and the external principle )

Next, regarding the 5th principle, the environmental principle, and the external principle, these 1st to 4th principles are constrained by the 5th principle. Think about it. Or you might want to think about Japan's isolation from the rest of the world. Considering the former, Europe was shut out from the Mediterranean Sea because of Islam, and its character as an agricultural civilization was strengthened. Markets and cities were established. It can be said that other environmental principles were also at work. Germanic, Magyar and Norman invasions would have had a great influence on the shaping of medieval Europe. Hicks touched on the market and trade based on the royal economy, but in the case of Europe, the establishment of the market along with the development of agriculture was dominant, and the development of the market and trade due to the royal economy was seen along with the development of the Roman church. (Venice, Genoa), ``The impetus for capitalism was in northern Europe,''* it seems that the impetus for its development was the development of a market based on agriculture.

* When did capitalism emerge?

The buds of capitalism are said to have originated in the Italian city-states and spread to northern Europe. However, the Italian cities were commercial capitalist, which seems to have been close to Islamic civilization (think of the relationship between Venice and the Byzantines and Levant). There was a relationship between Atlantic trade and Genoa (Spain's source of funds), but the establishment of capitalism was largely influenced by the rise of the "Netherland" as the center of a group of cities that developed based on agriculture. Beginning with Gentry (emerging agricultural entrepreneurs), the rise of the Netherlands against the background of the Baltic Sea trade (Hanseatic League) that handles daily commodities, the soil for the rise of Protestantism was in northern Europe, and the capital (for the masses) It can be said that a civilization in which accumulation itself was the goal, a civilization of capitalism, was decisively established here (consumption was also popular during the Italian Renaissance).

 

Japan's national isolation is an example of the constraints imposed by the environment on principles 1 through 4. This can be cited as a rare example where there was no outside influence. If medieval Europe is a closed model with a certain degree of openness, Japan during the period of national isolation can be said to be a closed model of  closed models.

The open-type closed model was a civilization that was constantly influenced by the outside but built up forces by defending it. Although it has been influenced, closed models are fortunately less affected by external influences, so we study unique values, technological efficiency, social structural forces, generation of counteracting forces, and the flow of change. It can be said that it is a material that can In the case of Japan's national isolation, it can be said that the geographical conditions are the constraints imposed by the environment. Medieval Europe is a very interesting period from the point of view of accumulating power, but from the point of view of how the mentality changes in a so-called "vacuum", the state of isolation in Japan is a more interesting period. Maybe.

 

It is necessary to look at examples of environmental principles and external principles, but it is also necessary to select cases in which the external influence is strong and weak, and to consider the nature of that strength. right. Japan's policy of national isolation can serve as a reference as an example of how history progressed only through internal principles, excluding influence from the outside, as an environmental principle. On the other hand, when thinking about the external principle, Macneil's conception of "world history" may serve as a reference as a broad framework.

In Macneil's "World History", the movement of world history up to now is largely captured in four periods.

 

The first is the age of Orient dominance.

The second is the era of multicultural coexistence and prosperity.

The third is the era of European dominance.

Then comes the era of unification and parallelization of multiple civilizations.

 

These four forms were established by some kind of forces, and during the period when the Orient was dominant, the Orient civilization influenced other civilizations. The principle was working.

On the other hand, in the era of multi-civilization coexistence and prosperity, Chinese civilization, Indian civilization, and European civilization coexisted with Islamic civilization at the center, and external principles worked on each other, but their influence was still small. However, a small shift in balance can change the situation, such as the Mongol Empire. The example of the Mongol Empire, on the other hand, suggested that the world was getting smaller.

 

The movement in Eurasia came about as a reaction to the increased seafaring activity in European civilization (the Age of Discovery). European civilization emerged from this. European civilization expanded its world through seafaring, fighting or avoiding Islamic civilization, and as a result, the industrial revolution blossomed in Britain, and competition with the forces within European civilization chasing it began. Among them, the era of European civilization's predominance came, but it had an influence on civilizations other than Europe, and it can be said that external principles worked from European civilization to Islamic civilization, Indian civilization, and Chinese civilization. 

 

And it seems that the present age is clearly heading toward an era of multicultural coexistence and prosperity. Looking at it in this way, it seems that there is a cycle from multiple civilizations to unipolar civilizations and from unipolar civilizations to multiple civilizations as an external principle. And perhaps the background behind this phenomenon is the transition of power relations between civilizations. The power of civilization itself is internal, and is the combined force of value, technological efficiency, social structural force, and reaction force. While each civilization has a relatively equal overall strength, the unipolar era can be seen as an era in which civilizations stood out in terms of their combined strength of value, technological efficiency, social structure, and reaction force.  Environmental and external forces are the forces that arise from the relative relations of forces between civilizations, and they influence the interior of civilizations and exert pressure on values, technological efficiency, social structure forces, and counteracting forces. It can be said that it has come.

 

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Civilizations and time 11 ( 5 principles )

Having considered the forces, let us consider what kind of world these forces constitute. First, we defined the forces. There are three fundamental forces. This definition and identification of types of forces is in keeping with Newton's attitude in Principia. It is an attitude of trying to explain with as few tools as possible. For example, whether it's rain in New York or London, you could say that the essence of making it rain doesn't change. This attitude is also found in Toynbee's historical studies.

 

There is value as the essential force that moves history, there is technological efficiency that is the force (technology, economy) that constantly tries to improve people's lives, and there is the force that tries to improve the organizational strength of society and it is the social structural force. I thought there were. All forces have a reaction, and this force is called the reaction force. And let us hypothesize that the forces defined in this way follow the following principles when organized.

 

1  Value changes with time and is the premise of all forces. (principle of value)

 

2  There are always forces at work in all human societies to improve life, and these are influenced by values. (Principle of life improvement →         technological efficiency)

 

3  There are always forces at work in all human societies that seek to increase the organizational strength of the community, and these are     influenced by values. (Principle of community development → social organizational strength)

 

4  New values and their forces are repelled by old values and their powers. (Principle of reaction force)

 

5  Human society is influenced by its environment, and principles 1 to 4 are influenced. (environmental principle and external principle)

 

These principles of forces can be regarded as the "elements" of forces that make up Toynbee's framework of civilizational dynamics. Each of these principles may need to be tested. I plan to examine the first principle, the principle of value, in more depth on another occasion. Regarding the second principle, the principle of life improvement, it is necessary to collect and enumerate the factors that have improved life in each civilization. I'm planning to try it civilization by civilization. It will be a material to verify E=g(f(t)), which expresses technical efficiency. We will analyze what caused the technological efficiency, that is, the factors that improved our lives. We analyze that this formula of technological efficiency force is composed of the value related to time (V = f(t)) and the growth force included in the force itself (which is included in the function g). . Implicitly, "life-enhancing things" refer to things that are relevant to the times and utility .

 

Regarding the third principle, the principle of community development, as a methodology, it seems necessary to collect and enumerate the factors that contributed to the development of the community for each civilization, as with the second principle. This will serve as a material for verifying the formula S=h(f(t)) that expresses the social structure force. It investigates what caused the social structural strength, that is, the factors that improved the organizational strength of the community. It is composed of values related to time (V=f(t)) as well as technological efficiency, and of developmental forces contained in the forces themselves. Things that develop society are things that are in line with the times, and they seem to point to things that have their own development. This is the same for technical efficiency, but it implies that social structural power can be changed by changes in time-related values, by changes in the power itself that develops organizational power.

 

Let's think about how to examine the fourth principle, the principle of counteracting force. It is also necessary to collect and enumerate examples for each civilization, but what to see is important. The principle of reaction is the principle that there is a force that opposes the second principle (the principle of living improvement) and the third principle (the principle of community development), and it is necessary to search for such a phenomenon. I mentioned the Reformation and imperialism as examples of such phenomena before, but I believe that these phenomena are not composed of simple forces, but of complex systemic forces. Why is the Reformation a reaction? Why is imperialism a reaction? The "Reformation" is a reaction from the perspective of the European medieval world as a perfection type, and the "imperialism" is an industrial revolution or Pax Britannica as a perfection type. In this case, it is a counteraction, but it may also be understood as a manifestation of conservative power in which technological efficiency and social organizational forcse collide with and fuse with reaction. As the times change, technological efficiency and social structural strength will develop, but the meaning of technological efficiency (improvement of life) and social structural strength (community development) will also change due to changes in their respective values or reaction. It would be better to think of it as solidified and conservative. This is called "maintenance ability".

 

Conservatism, in Toynbee's sense, can be said to be the force to resist "the forces acting from within and outside the system" during the period of civilization's decline. How the system adapts to these internal and external forces, and adapting with mature technological efficiency and social structural strength is the position of "conservative power", that is, conservatism. It may be said. The counteracting force and the conservative force were different forces, but at some point they will join forces. Against the creative ruler or the minority ruler who arises from the deterioration of this creative ruler in Toynbee, what used to be a counteracting force turns into a conservative force.

 

It is important to analyze each force, but it may have been difficult to clarify the concept of conservative force. But there are some good writings. For example, Burke's "Reflections on the French Revolution" and Bagehot's "British Constitutional History" probably analyzed the structure of conservative force.

 

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Civilizations and time 10 ( Value - formula )

The fact that time has no meaning without human intervention, that is, all created things must be some kind of human labor W (abbreviation for work; (included in labor W) and time t (abbreviation of time). Therefore, it is assumed that the output of a creation of a certain civilization, nation, etc. is simply expressed by Wt.

However, as we thought about time, t itself has no meaning. W's incentivizing values are more meaningful, and value is the direction and efficiency of the production of what is produced, be it a mental or physical creation.  The contents of creations differ greatly depending on what kind of values each civilization or nation has. For example, China and Taiwan, South Korea and North Korea, would have naturally produced different creations.

In addition, with the development of the means of production (the object of production activity here is not limited to commodities, the spiritual and material products produced by religion and culture are also included in the object of production activity, and commodities, culture, etc. are all included in this article. The rate of production of creations (which we call “creations”) will also vary. Changes in the social structure will also affect the speed of production. There will also be counteracts to such efficiency gains and changes in the social structure. And those powers are combined and transformed into conservative power.

Values influence and are exerted on (1) the efficiency of the production of creations, (2) the social structure, and (3) the content of reactions. Technical efficiency and social structural force has a certain value and try to develop it mentally and materially , but compared to that, the counteraction and the conservatism that is the combined force of them ,grasping the structure may be more difficult. In the first place, the value of a certain era itself is complex and diverse, and the strongest value and impulse among them ultimately pulls us in the direction. Based on that, technical efficiency and social structural power are determined, but even if reaction forces are assumed in an easy-to-understand manner (because they are likely to be opposed by vested interests), what kind of compromise will settle them as "conservative force"? By the selection of values, it seems to be a difficult process.

 

Now, using the ancillary concepts we have considered earlier, let us come up with a formula for the relationship between the structure of mental energy and the output of its creations.

V=f(t)...1 The value V is related to the time t.

E=g(f(t))..2 Efficiency E is related to value V, and value affects efficient technical ability E.

S=h(f(t))·····3 Social structural force S is related to value V, and value affects social structural force S.

R...4 Reaction force R is a force that arises as a repulsion against the actions of E and S.

 

In addition, it is thought that there is a synthetic force that combines E, S and R, that is, there is a conservative force, but we ignore it here and do not consider V, E, S, and R to be concepts with quantities. Taken only as a relational expression, and with the above in mind, if we consider the production of creation,

A simple formula is W×t=F(E, S, R) . . . 5.

 

This formula means that "the production of creation is the output resulting from the input of E technical efficiency force, S social structure force, and R reaction force."

Furthermore, W t = Cs + Cp ... 6

shows that creation output can be divided into Cs (mental creation output) and Cp (material creation output),

Cs+Cp=F(E, S, R) 7

Substituting 2, 3, and 4 into 7 gives Cs+Cp=F(g(f(t)), h(f(t)), R)...8.

Equation 8 means: That the output of creation is a function of value.

t: The breakdown of the amount of production of creation changes depending on how V=f(t) changes with the passage of time.

What is meant by formula 8 is that the state of production of mental and material creations is determined by the combination of value, technical efficiency, social structure and reaction forces.

The expression on the right side expresses that the value fluctuates with time, and the amount of production of creation fluctuates according to that value, but the left side simply expresses the amount of production of spiritual creation and that of material creation. This formula does not express how the breakdown is determined.

 

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Civilizations and time 9 (Reaction force)

6 Reaction force: About R

Reaction force R is a force deeply related to culture, but if a certain value V exists, E: efficiency efficiency force and S: social structure force change depending on that V, and in this world there is some kind of creation, the amount of output .Suppose there is a significant expansion. Let us divide them into mental and physical things and name them Cs mental creations and Cp physical creations. However, while such things appear in the world, there is a force that tries to return them to their previous state, the state before the change, and this is defined as a counteracting force. No attempt is made to formulate the reaction force.

 

Examples of counteracting forces abound in cases of conservatism. Especially in Chinese history, this element seems to come out strongly. Confucianism has long overshadowed Chinese history. In the case of China, there has been a conflict between legalists and Confucianists since the Warring States period, but especially since the Sung period, large landowners, merchants, and bureaucrats have come together, and the emperor has acted as an intermediary. The examination questions for the imperial examinations to be selected were also based on Confucianism, that is, the rule of man. Until the society before the Republic of China based on Western thought, conservatism in China meant returning to the stable society of the former three parties, and in that sense it did not change.

 

Conservatism in Europe, on the other hand, changed rapidly. This may be due to the experience of a significant change in value. European civilization was based on Greece, the Roman Empire, and Christianity, but first, the coexistence of the sovereignty after Charlemagne, which was established after the invasion of the Germanic peoples, and the priesthood of the Roman pope, including pioneering by monasteries, was a major cornerstone. It seems that Thus began the Middle Ages in Europe, among which the value of the papal system exerted a great influence on technological efficiency and social structural power, giving birth to spiritual and material creations. It seems that the phenomena up to this point did not occur in Indian civilization or Islamic civilization, which were both religious civilizations. Neither Indian civilization nor Islamic civilization has ever had a large-scale bureaucracy of religious power, exactly like the secular one. The expansion of religious power in European civilization ended with the limit of agriculture, and after that it began to expand to the sea like the Crusades, but it led to the rise of commerce in Venice, Genoa, and Florence, the downfall of small and medium lords, and the rise of nations. , the Middle Ages lost their grounds and the Reformation, a force that denied them, eventually came into being. The activities of the Society of Jesus and the anti-religious revolution against it are conservatism, and may be given as an example of counteracting force.

 

As another example of conservatism, the value of the industrial revolution in Western Europe has influenced technological efficiency and social structure, and has produced spiritual and material creations . and it may be possible to point out that the power to deny it arose.The value of trying to make an industrial revolution may have been seen more strongly in France than in England. This is because Britain seems to have naturally accomplished the industrial revolution, while France seems to have consciously tried to start the industrial revolution. The French Revolution itself was started by enlightened aristocrats and bourgeoisie who felt a sense of crisis after watching the industrial revolution in England. It seems to be a typical symptom of the manifestation of counteracting forces." The example of France shows that, given the emergence of various forms of political regimes, counteracting forces can manifest themselves in many different forms. Europe was divided between Catholicism and Protestantism, but in 1830 and 1848, the ripples of civil revolution spread, centering on France. While France itself, the center of the ripples, was a haven for many forms of reactionary forces, and conservatism in other parts of Europe was also varied, the diffuse reflections of reactionary forces became very colorful. It seems that it was Germany that tried to lead to the industrial revolution in the most forcible way.

 

The Bismarck regime is said to be Bonaparteism*, but because it lagged behind France, it was unable to obtain overseas colonies in the way that Britain and France compromised on their overseas colonies. Although it was forced to move toward militarism, it was the same as France in that it tried to preserve conservatism and reactionary power. France spent a long time working out its problems with the Catholic Church (especially education). Such militarism rooted in conservatism is similar in Russia and Austria, and after World War I, the Russian and Austrian empires collapsed, Russia became a communist country, and Austria became a number of republics. 

 

* Bonaparteism

The foundation of the state is to promote capitalism and the interests of the bourgeoisie, but the forces of the bourgeoisie and the proletariat are in opposition, and in the transitional period when they cannot rule alone, they must seize and maintain political power with the support of the peasants in the middle and the middle classes .

 

In this way, conservatism and reactionary force remained relatively strong in England and France, but there was one country that developed differently, the United States. Unlike other European countries, the United States did not have an aristocratic or landlord class, which was originally conservative, and because of the size of its own country, it followed a different history from that of Europe. The United States sought to expand economically, rather than through blatant imperialism (although its neighbors were different), to acquire markets and resources (this is an important point in thinking about the era that will follow imperialism). 

 

During the Great Depression, fascism, in which the ruling class took control of the military, emerged as a countermeasure against the masses. In a sense, nationalism was also about preserving the long-formed conservative culture cultivated in the age of religion and aristocracy. For this reason, it should be considered that the culture of militarism already existed due to factors different from those of fascism. For example, in Japan, it could be called "Bushido".

 

If militarism is the result of conservatism and counter-acting forces, it is because there are conflicts between classes within the country, and the old powers of the church and the aristocracy are being oppressed by the industrialists and workers. It is thought that this is due to the fact that they tried to protect by force. In this era, the reason why they were oriented toward external development was that they used their political power in accordance with the times to acquire social status overseas and convert their land assets into financial assets in order to maintain their own vested interests.  and militarization was probably closely tied to it. In addition, the officers who commanded the armies were former powers of Britain, Germany, and Russia, and were of the aristocratic landlord class*.

 

*Gentleman Capitalism

The export of capital did not begin on top of the accumulation of capital by the Industrial Revolution, but the development of industrial capital as an investment destination (initially, it grew through the cooperation of industrial capitalists) at the same time as the capitalization of the nobility and gentry progressed. Together, Britain is said to have developed gentleman capitalism. Britain's trade balance declined early on, earning from its non-trade and capital accounts. And the culture built on this economic prosperity was the gentleman's culture, the Victorian morality.

 

In contrast, the United States did not have the old powers of nobility and churches, and although it was able to avoid blatant imperialism because of its vastness and its proximity to South America, it seems that it didnt formed its armies like Europe. The fact that there was little power of strong landlords and nobility would also be mentioned. It seems that this has become a form of economic expansion through business expansion overseas. This state of affairs in the United States seems to have had a great influence on the phenomenon of the latter half of the 20th century . Although there may have been something like an admiration for the British style.

Therefore, it seems that there was a feudal aristocratic value as a reaction to the spiritual and material creations of the Industrial Revolution (together with materialism), and this was linked to militarism (nationalism). In order to protect their feudal and aristocratic values, which were ending their historical role in relation to bourgeois and popular values, militarism was not denied, and colonial competition was affirmed. This reactionary force was stronger than expected, and lasted until World War I was inconclusive and Britain was exhausted in World War II, after which the colonies were liberated after the war. The result was the United States, a purely business  and a social organization for the industrial revolution. After the First World War, the reaction force declined greatly, the world changed greatly, and the modern world started, but the Second World War put an end to the reaction force originating in Europe.

 

Conservatism and reactionary forces in Europe are, in a sense, historical, and are closely related to the religious civilization that was established together with the agricultural civilization, such as the counter-reformation and militarism based on the aristocracy. was also a doctrine. The common root of all these is feudalism, but it might be a good idea to go back to Chinese civilization here. If the religious outcome of agricultural civilization in China was Confucianism, if Chinese civilization never became a feudal state in the sense of European civilization, and if conservatism, reactionary forces were to return to the Confucian classics, In the first place, Chinese civilization probably did not have anything equivalent to the religious reformation in European civilization*, and it may be said that there was no era of militarism.

 

In other words, the conservative and reactionary values that Europe has suffered for so long are not the ideas of the Industrial Revolution or the French Revolution, but rather the old religious and feudal values (Nietzsche's dying Christianity), the industrial revolution, Democracy is an advocacy of production and organization based on human reason, and it may itself be an unchanging ideal that is still in the process of evolution.

I have written conservatism and reactionary force side by side with similar meanings, but strictly speaking, they are different things. Reaction force is the "reaction" to technical efficiency and social organization power, whereas conservative force is the force in which technological efficiency and social structure force harmonize with the previous creative ruler or minority ruler. You should think In that sense, "conservative" may be said to be fusional and "synthetic".

 

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Civilizations and time 8 (social structural force)

5 Social Structural force: About S

 

Social structural force S is a force that is deeply related to politics, military, and integration , and is defined as a force that tries to realize an integration value V, given that there is an integration value V. The relationship between S and value V can be expressed by the following formula.

S=h(V)・・・③ From V=f(t), social structural force is a function of value, and value is a function of time. ＝h(f(t))・・・④,

which expresses that social structural force is a function of value. Values are chosen within the constraints of the times, and organizations are formed based on those values.

What has been realized in history is that the people who lived in that era chose the best values and organized the best in the challenging environment.

As an example of such social structural force, if we take examples from successive social organizations in China,ｗe can see that the history of Chinese dynasties was a history of repeated restructuring of social organization. From the Western Zhou to the Warring States period, it was domestic economic development that prompted the formation, but in the case of China, a radical regime (in this case, Qin) was established for a short period of time, and then a long-term regime, the Han, was established. , undergoing a process of stabilization. In the Han dynasty, conflicts between the public and private sectors arose, and the system was established in the midst of it.  During this time, challenges from the Xiongnu from outside also continued.

 

This mechanism continued to occur, and after the period of the Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties, the Sui dynasty was established for a short period of time, followed by the Tang dynasty for a long period of time. The various systems created by the Sui dynasty were born during the Wei, Jin, and Southern and Northern Dynasties, and after a short period of radical Sui dynasty, they were stabilized under the long-term Tang dynasty. There has been economic development for some time, and among them, there have been conflicts between the public and private sectors, and new systems and both tax laws have emerged. In China's history, the reorganization of social systems and tax laws to grasp the people has been repeated repeatedly. It is also the reason why it is possible.

 

Later, after the turmoil of the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period, the Song dynasty arose. At this time, radical governments like Qin and Sui were not established, but instead, from the era of Sejong in the later Zhou to the establishment of the Song Dynasty , it occurred in the process of conflict. Based on the Shidaibu, they built up an excellent economist system consisting of bureaucrats, landlords, and big merchants. The Song dynasty tried to control the challenges from outside the country (Liao, Jin) with economicism (tribute diplomacy), replacing the domestic rule from soldiers to literati. However, here too there was a conflict between the public and private sectors (Wang Anshi's reforms). In the case of China, the conflict between the public and private sectors is the conflict between the government that protects the small and medium-sized landowners who bear the tax burden and the government that protects the interests of the large landowners. In the meantime, there was an emperor, with eunuchs as his servants.

 

After the Song dynasty, the Han Chinese continued to be challenged by outsiders in northern China, and the period of conquest dynasties continued. Liao, Jin, and Yuan followed, but the invention of social organization in the Liao and the ``system centered on nomads'' and the ``system centered on farmers'' such as North and South officials (so to speak, the beginning of one country, two systems) ) was the premise of the conquest dynasty. At the same time, the establishment of a system of bureaucrats, large landowners, and large merchants in China must have been important. After the Liao and Jin, the Yuan Dynasty was established from the 12th century to the 14th century, but although it was one country, two systems (in terms of taxation), it did not respect the Han people, but respected the people of the eyes. It was originally a trading nation, and it may be said that Han Chinese landowners and merchants were taken in by it. Originally, a coin called kosho was established with salt as the source of capital, but due to the wasteful spending of finances and the inadequacy of the method of succeeding to the government, the Ming dynasty was established after a peasant rebellion and compromise with the large landowners. Although the Ming revived the policies of the Han people (Riko system, Yurin Huangshu), they had no choice but to follow the movements of the world, creating a silver-based monetary economy, and the tax system was established as a one-paragraph expedient law. . After a period of restorationism, the Ming, unlike the Yuan dynasty, established relations with foreign countries under state control . In the first place, Ming did not have the radical leading nations, Qin, Sui, and Later Zhou like Han, Tang, and Song before it, but it was a trading nation, a nation in which the Yuan dynasty collapsed and the Han people revived. During the emperor's era, there was an aspect that he tried to inherit the Yuan line (Zheng He, who made a great cruise abroad, was a eunuch and a former secular man), but this was no longer possible in Hokuroku Nanwa, and the Han people's old landlords. , bureaucrats, and merchants may have been frozen in the trinity system. In the Ming dynasty, the economy developed, but Tsukudado's anti-ancestor movement also became active. There was growth to free farmers, but it did not lead to the industrial revolution due to usury and the production process being meticulously controlled by commercial capital. In the Ming political system, the power of the emperor and eunuchs (after the Yongle emperor) was strong, and the rule of the emperor was strengthened from the bottom at first, but the structure was such that local gentlemen, who were granted special privileges by the government, suppressed small and medium-sized landowners. Instead, it became a typical example of how the "social structural force" created by large landlords, bureaucrats, and large merchants (triangle) suppressed the "efficient technological power" of the economy. Financially, the emperor should stand between the general public and the wealthy, eunuch politics (one of the most prominent Chinese social structures, probably established to respond to the powerful bureaucracy or to back up the imperial dictatorship. The reason why it fell into the “things” is probably due to the inclination toward the Trinity. As a result, a peasant rebellion broke out, and it was put under control by the Qing, who were not the Han Chinese. Achieved equilibrium (Emperor Kangxi, Emperor Yongzheng). However, this equilibrium was broken during the Qianlong emperor's long prosperity.

 

I have looked at the history of China as an example of social structural force, and I have taken up it as a typical example of the suppression of efficient technological force. For a long time in other civilizations as well, the mainstream of change seems to have been a change in social structural force. The rapid expansion of the Islamic empire after Muhammad and the rapid expansion of the Mongol empire after the advent of Genghis Khan can be cited as such examples. they reformed military administrative organizations to control trade routes, and a society that encompassed religion and culture. I believe that the invention of the system was the secret to success. The history of China's dynasties can be said to be a treasure trove of such history.

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Civilizations and time 7 ( Efficient technical capability : E)

4 First, let's briefly consider value. Value will be considered in another article, "Civilization and Value," but if I explain only the conclusion, value will arise with the transition of the creative ruler . Synthesis of ``quantitative'' changes that occur with ``qualitative'' changes and the transitions of the imitative masses  is formed by “quality and quantity synthesis”.

So it would be a combinatorial problem. For example, what happens to society when the leaders of society lose their creativity and the masses are self-actualized?

This seems to be a problem relevant to modern Japan, but when a society's leadership groups respond creatively to the challenges of the outside world, and when the public's mentality is strongly communal-oriented, the society is strong. Conversely, when the leadership group can only take compulsory control and the masses are self-fulfilling and disjointed, society seems to be weakened.

 

With that in mind, let's consider value: V (V alue ) and time: t (T ime ).

Here the value V is given. The formula V=f(t) . . . 1 is a conceptual formula expressing that value is a function of time. This means that the value changes with time. Values change because, with changes in the external world and environment, the contents of challenges change, the ability of creative leaders to respond to change, and the intentions of the masses change. ) simply states that "value changes with time" including all such things.

As for the question of how "value" changes due to what influences time, it can be said that the external world, changes in the environment, the position of the creative ruler, and the position of the masses correspond to the function "f".  Whether V or f or anything can be quantified is not considered here, and I think there is a certain significance in the sense of how these relationships are positioned in the system of the driving force of historical change.

On the other hand, t is time, and time exists trivially as a quantity, just as the chronology of history does. However, the historical chronology was not treated as if Tyco Brahe observed celestial bodies and organized the data.

What should be considered here may be the work of selecting examples from many histories. For example, if we think about the transfer of hegemony, what kind of challenges did the Netherlands receive from the outside world, what kind of creative leaders emerged, and what was the state of the public at that time? This will be arranged along with a chronology (as objective time), and this will probably be how the "celestial bodies" in the world system of Holland, England, and America moved.

 

Accepting V=f(t) as a rough hypothesis, let us not consider the content and state of V for the time being, but consider the system of driving force.

 

4 Efficient technology: About E

Efficient technical capability E is mainly related to efficiency and technology. When a certain value V exists, it is defined as the ability to achieve technical improvement among the powers that try to realize that value. As a case to think about this, a comparison of "South Korea and North Korea" or "China and Taiwan" may be appropriate. If the value is different, the meaning of "efficiency" and "technology" to realize it will be greatly different. South Korea's national policy was economic growth, and North Korea's national policy was military . In this way, the value regulates and controls the content of efficient technical capabilities. In that case, the most important thing is to “find out values that match the trends of the times and the world,” and it will be the market, capitalism, or the government that will make this possible. Again, it may be interesting to see what happened in the case of Wallerstein's hegemonic states, Holland, England, and America. For the time being, let's express the relationship between efficient technical ability E and value V in a formula.

 

Since V=f(t)…(1), E=g(V) is E=g(f(t))…(2)

 

Formula (2) expresses that efficient technological capabilities are a function of value from formula (1) V = f(t), and that value is a function of time. In practice, values are chosen within the constraints of time, and technologies are chosen based on those values, within the constraints of limited resources. In other words, what has been achieved in the past history was achieved by the people who lived in that era choosing the best value in the environment as a challenge and investing limited resources in the best efficient technology. That is what it means. Regardless of whether it is truly optimal.

 

As an example of such efficient technology, if we take the case of the industrial revolution in England,

Invention of coke production method with coalfields (1709) "change from wood to coal"

Newcomen, Steam Internal Combustion Engine (1712)

Watt, Steam Internal Combustion Engine (1769) with further efficiency

Development of spinning machines and other machinery Use as a power source (Jenny, Arkwright, Cartwright, Mule)

Development of transportation (railway, steamship)

 

The use of coal as a power source and from wood to iron as a material was a technological innovation accompanying the reduction of wood resources and a response to environmental challenges. That kind of value existed in England at the time, and I can feel a strong obsession with "power" in particular. The raw material of iron and the power of the steam engine gave birth to full-fledged "machinery", supporting productivity and transportation, and at the same time becoming the source of the power of the British nation*. However, in the case of the British Industrial Revolution, before the leap in efficient technology, there was also a major element of the leap in social organization power (deregulation, centralization, fiscal reform, financial system), which will be discussed later . It was largely the non-mainstream Puritan middle class or Scots* who were responsible for the innovation,  and the fact that there were people with values that compelled them to go in that direction. 

 

In addition, there was a market in which capital (Atlantic trade: triangular trade with America and Africa) was accumulated from the beginning, but according to Ashton's "Industrial Revolution" , industrial entrepreneurs initially It was thought that the businessmen who expanded the factories were able to accommodate each other's capital. After production got on track, Gentry and financiers may have invested heavily in the factories, but looking at the background to the abolition of the grain law, it seems that it was not so simple*. Also, unlike London, Lancashire, where the Industrial Revolution took place, did not have a large population, which may have been a factor in promoting mechanization*. When it comes to technology, there were talents (Dissidents, Scottish Enlightenment) and resources (coal, iron ), depletion of timber, population scarcity as challenges, fostering value for innovation and has hatched. And there were favorable conditions such as the agricultural revolution in East Anglia such as Norfolk, strong centralization centering on London and deregulation after the Glorious Revolution, investment from the Netherlands, and overseas markets due to the Seven Years War. The appearance of a completely different world from the era before it, such as the Industrial Revolution, would not have appeared without the discovery or creation of "value" and rational (not only empirical) efforts* toward it. In a sense, then, by losing the creative middle class, Britain lost rationalism, and creative leaders degraded under empiricism.

 

The Industrial Revolution was cited as the best example of efficient technological power. would be mentioned as an example. These are interesting themes about what kind of challenges they faced, what kind of creative leaders emerged, how the masses followed them, and how civilization developed. At that time, social organizational power might be at work as well, but when looking at what kind of power was most dominant, it is fair to think that it was an era when efficient technological power was at work most. I wonder. The present age is truly an era of efficient technological power, and the value of technology is the most dominant situation .

 

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