Civilizations and value 5 ( civilization and hegemony )

3 　Civilization as it is

 

First, let's classify them by ideological type . By doing so , we will be able to pay attention to the various forms of life that exist in various civilizations. I have been thinking that I will be able to reflect on the state of existence . However, these civilizations are beings whose lives have been observed through formal classification . In a different sense from this , they are themselves subjects that act as life phenomena . Therefore, research that captures the true state of civilization is also necessary .

 

The classification of civilizations may be rather static . However, unlike the classification of plants and insects, civilization has  thick layers of time. Just as geological formations have a history and stories, civilizations also have a history and stories. In other words, in the case of civilization, even though it is called classification, it cannot be simply a formal or completely static science. Research that captures such biological phenomena will have aspects of dynamic research .

 

The four civilizations are formally classified as ``local civilization'' and ``cosmopolitan civilization .' ' Local civilizations are controlled and concentrated (or bandwagoning *when viewed externally) , and Chinese and Indian civilizations fall under this category . In ``Study of Civilization,'' I wrote that China had integrated through politics, and India had integrated through religion and culture .

 

In contrast, cosmopolitan civilization is decentralized and expansive, and European civilization and Islamic civilization have been considered to fall under this category . I assumed that chemical changes occurred due to contact between these cosmopolitan civilizations . In other words , Western civilization became the strongest due to the history and results of conflicts (war) and exchanges (peace) between European civilization and Islamic civilization . Capital accumulation and military commercialization occurred in European civilization . I believed that the strongest civilization, Western civilization, was born by combining these two elements . At the same time, these are the cancerous cells that are currently eroding peace and are a major issue on Earth.

 

*Bandwagoning-like 

Nations follow emerging powers, adapt to them, take a secondary or subordinate position to emerging powers, and expect their fundamental interests to be protected.

 

For a while after that , Western civilization was dominated by hegemonic struggles within itself *1. This has now turned into a struggle for supremacy , not just within civilizations, but between civilizations (the West and China) . In addition to the traditional struggle for economic hegemony, the United States and China are now beginning to recognize that there is a struggle for supremacy .

 

But will this situation continue? Will Chinese civilization be followed by Indian civilization, followed by Islamic civilization, and so on ? *2 Is the struggle for supremacy an inevitable form of life phenomena between civilizations ? If capital accumulation and military commercialization are the characteristics of Western civilization, which is rooted in a sense of scarcity, then a world dominated by Chinese, Indian, and Islamic civilizations may become a different world. Or perhaps these civilizations have learned capital accumulation and military commercialization from Western civilization. If that is the case, the struggle for supremacy will not be revised in the future . Nor will there be an end to proxy wars or civil wars in developing countries . Weapons will continue to be manufactured and sold . Is civilization as it is a world where the fittest survives, just like the animal kingdom? MacNeil used the concepts of micro-parasitism and macro-parasitism as tools to explain the transformation of civilization, but is that the whole world?

 

*1　 It was all about hegemony struggles within civilization.

Hegemonic control refers to the control of products, distribution, and finance, and the focus has shifted to Venice, Umbel, Genoa, Amsterdam, London, and New York. At one point, there was a momentum that Tokyo seemed to be taking over the hegemony, but unlike China, Japan did not step into the path of hegemony and put the brakes on it.

 

*2　 Will this situation continue , with Chinese civilization followed by Indian civilization, followed by Islamic civilization ?

Japan did not set out on the path to hegemony. Democracy had already pervaded Japan, and there was no intention at all of militarily to confront the United States. However, China seems to be different. Party rule is used to govern the country, but since it is not a democracy, it is impossible to let off steam and has no choice but to make external enemies. Compared to that, India is a democracy, so it may be less likely to move toward hegemony like China. Democracy has not yet fully penetrated Islamic civilization. It may be the Chinese civilization and the Islamic civilization that are most likely to be in conflict over a change in hegemony . However, Islamic civilization is still fragmented and may never emerge as a unified civilization like Chinese civilization. This is because Islamic civilization was a cosmopolitan civilization, just as it had always been.

 

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Civilizations and value 3 ( ways for different civilizations to coexist )

I have briefly explained civilization and quasi-civilization. First, we divided it into civilization and quasi-civilization . We have classified civilizations and quasi-civilizations within each category, but what is the meaning of classifying them in this way ?

 

The purpose of this classification is to understand what kind of "lifeform" each civilization is . The aim is to grasp the characteristics that lie at the heart of the life of that civilization . We are trying to look at civilization by the same way we look at specimens of insects and plants . Seen from this perspective, the extinct Inca and Aztec civilizations may be seen as ``living entities'' that have been killed (though there are still a few that survive) . Classifying civilizations is the first step in understanding each civilization as a living entity . This must also lead to thinking about how these things should be respected and preserved .

 

However, on the other hand, there will naturally be resistance to an approach that views civilization as life. Although it is not a civilization, the theory that society is an organism has long been rejected. Sociology uses the concepts of social structure and social change. Rather, it may be easier to explain it using the concepts of civilizational structure and civilizational change, borrowing concepts from sociology . And perhaps it is the sociological approach that is consistent with the five principles of civilization (value, technological efficiency, social structure, reaction force, external force/environmental force) mentioned in "Study of Civilization". 

 

The sociological approach is linked to industrialization and modernization, and has developed as a tool for analyzing European civilization. As parts of Asia have developed, sociological approaches have also evolved in the sense of examining this development. However, considering sociology's long history, it is like looking at a subject for a very short period of time (modernization in European civilization).

 

Seeing each civilization as a living thing seems to be related to having a perspective that also sees modernization in Europe as part of the life of European civilization. Isn't it more natural to think that there is something like life in the phenomenon of a civilization that declines and dies as a group, but then revives as a group and emerges? As a way to explore life, we will begin with the seemingly unremarkable task of collecting and classifying civilizations, much like looking at plants and insects.

 

 Let's reorganize the criteria for classifying civilizations.

 

【civilization】

　　Cosmopolitan type        1  European civilization

       　　　                            2  Islamic civilization

　　　　Local type               3  Indian civilization

                                　　       4  Chinese type

 

【quasi-civilization】

　　Colonial type　　　 　 5  Oceania type

                                             6  South American type or North American type

       Penetration type           7  African type

                                            8  Eurasian (Russian) type

       Frontier type                9  Far East type (Japan, Korea)

                                          10  Far Western type (Britain, Northern Europe)

       Fusion type                 11 Eastern European type

                                           12  Southeast Asia type

 

The details have been mentioned in ``Study of Civilization'' and ``Study of quasi-civilization.'' These classifications had the purpose of capturing the life of each civilization or quasi-civilization.

However, there was another major purpose. `` How should organic relationships , coexistence, and prosperity be achieved between civilizations ?'' In ``study  of quasi-civilization ,'' I attempted to explore ways for different civilizations to coexist .

 

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Civilizations and value 2 ( civilizations and quasi-civilizations )

However, there was one conclusion that was shown in ``Study of Civilization.'' Civilizations did not evolve through changes in the form of individual civilizations, but rather it was the relationships between these civilizations that gave rise to and evolved civilizations.

 

A typical example of this may be the relationship between Islamic civilization and European civilization. The relationship between these two civilizations resulted in the creation of the current Western civilization. In this relationship, the ``scarcity'' that remained at the center of the driving force of European civilization was overcome, giving rise to Western civilization's faith in military and capital.

 

This background in civilization theory may actually be the most important. The change in hegemony is also often discussed from an economic or capitalist perspective. However, capital and military forces cannot be established on their own. Elucidating this problem will be another important theme of this paper.

 

As with any civilization, there is a moral system that operates human society. And that becomes the standard of civilization. Among them, there were civilizations whose moral systems had influence across multiple nations. Here, we will specifically refer to such civilizations as ``civilizations,'' which are like stars having  the influence  to planets. Such civilizations include European civilization, Islamic civilization, Indian civilization, and Chinese civilization . These four civilizations are aggregations of humans who have had systematic morals in an international sense , and have influenced smaller civilizations in their periphery.

 

On the other hand, in the sense of " a nation , " this is a collection of humans that has its own moral system , and that has been greatly influenced by so-called "civilization." In this case, I will specifically refer to it as a "quasi-civilization . "

 In the ``Research on Quasi-Civilizations'', there were roughly four types of such quasi -civilizations .

 

　① Colonial type quasi-civilization, ② Penetration type quasi-civilization, ③ Frontier type quasi-civilization, ④ Fusion type quasi-civilization.　

 

Therefore , I proposed a method of classification .

 

Oceania and South America as “colonial quasi-civilizations” (North America may also be included)

Russia as “penetrating quasi-civilizations”

The Far East and the Far West as “frontier quasi-civilizations”

 Eastern Europe and Southeast Asia as ``fusion-type quasi-civilizations . ''

 

 Each quasi-civilization can be explained as an ideal type as follows.

A colonial type quasi-civilization is a civilization in which the influence of the colonizers was stronger than that of the natives, and an penetrating type semi-civilization is a  civilization in which the influence of the natives remained relatively strong over the penetrating civilization .  Frontier-type quasi-civilizations are those that were under the influence of civilizations (one of the four civilizations) on only one side , but on the other hand, their unique characteristics remained strong , and fusion-type quasi-civilizations are civilizations surrouned from multiple directions . It is a quasi-civilization that has been strongly influenced by several  civilizations(including quasi-civilizations) , but has also been created by overlapping these influences .

 

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Civilizations and value 1 ( classifying civilizations in terms of general concepts )

civilization and values

 

Chapter 1 　Civilization 

1  Idea type when thinking about civilization

 

I have continued to research civilizations and quasi-civilizations. In the study of civilization, I have mainly been thinking about the relationship between Toynbee's theory and civilization in terms of civilization and time. There was another character in the study of civilization. It's Spengler. I said that I would like to think about Spengler at a later date under the theme of civilization and values. Here we will think about civilization and values.

 

However, the translation of Spengler's "The Decline of the West" is difficult to understand (it must have been difficult to translate because the content is so diverse), and there are many things that are difficult for me, who is Japanese, to understand, including various issues in Arabic culture. It was too much. For this reason, I decided to set aside the ``decline of the West'' for the time being and, taking a hint from Spengler's perspective, explain the issue of civilization and values by selecting examples from Japanese cultural issues.

 

Now, before thinking about civilization and values, I would like to reconsider the concept of civilization. We have considered civilizations and quasi-civilizations, and the idea of these civilizations has been proposed in this series of research as a standard for classifying civilizations. Each of these concepts can be treated as what Weber called an ideal type * . By considering ideal types, it becomes possible to understand the appearance of each individual civilization (civilization, quasi-civilization) in more detail by comparing them with ideal types.

 

 *Ideal type

Key concepts of Weber's social science methodology. Ideal type is a methodological concept. It has the meaning of a purely ideological limit concept, by which we measure reality and thereby articulate a certain meaningful part of the content of our experience.

 

 

2    4 civilizations and quasi-civilizations

 

When it comes to civilizations , it seems that they were not often categorized by type or style, just like looking at specimens. However, up until now, each has probably been talked about as vaguely self-evident. Of course, there were other classifications based on the characteristics of civilizations*1.

 

In this series of research has been the classification of civilizations according to general concepts. In a sense, I wanted to exhibit civilization as a specimen. The point is, how can we explain the individuality of each civilization? Can it be expressed more clearly by using general concepts? That was a big pillar of what I wanted to do.

 

Let's briefly review how civilizations are classified. First of all , it can be divided into two major groups based on its morphological characteristics .

These are the four "civilizations" and many other "quasi-civilizations . "

The four civilizations were classified according to two general concepts, and the quasi-civilizations were classified according to four general concepts.

 

*1 There was a time when civilizations were classified based on their individuality.

Toynbee's ``study of history'' introduced the concepts of civilization such as parent civilization, child civilization, stunted civilization, and miscarried civilization. In addition, the existence of 21 other civilized societies was proposed. However, it can be said that these 21 civilizations were classified not by general concepts but by their individuality. Civilizations are named by proper names, such as Egyptian civilization or Andean civilization. In other words, he has directly captured the individuality of the civilization he is observing. However, in that case, only one civilization exists, and there is no similarity between each civilization. This will not create empathy or relationships. Understanding and classifying civilizations in terms of general concepts rather than unique individualities is the first step in building empathy and relationships. In other words , it can be said to be an attempt to categorize civilizations using a method similar to Jung's typology.

 

*2 Morphological

In Spengler's ``The Decline of the West,'' the idea of viewing civilization as a form emerged. However, it can be said that this is not the form of a solid, but rather the change of a solid over time as a form.

With this in mind, at the very beginning of the classification, we roughly divided civilization and quasi-civilization. I did this because I believe that there will be differences in the way they develop in form.

Whether a ``civilization'' develops or declines, it will continue to influence smaller civilizations around it. In contrast, "quasi-civilizations" will continue to have their own moral systems, but will continue to be heavily influenced by "civilizations." At the center of this influence is the ``moral system'' of ``civilization,'' and depending on whether this is broad or narrow, we can call it civilization or quasi-civilization. Therefore, the equation `` civilization '' = ``moral system = religion'' can be said to be the central theme of civilization theory.

 

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Civilizations and space 10 (European civilization's taste )

Some people think that European civilization is characterized by collecting, but European civilization was pushed out into the Atlantic Ocean by Islamic civilization pushed out by the Mongol Empire. In response to Spain's dispersal of the wealth gained in the New World within Europe as military expenses, European countries that pursued mercantilistic policies accumulated capital in order to strengthen their military power. It led to the industrial revolution. the scale and duration of the war may have been a precursor to the Industrial Revolution. And it may be that the taste for capital accumulation has not changed since then.

 

Capital accumulation led to excess production capacity, which led to world wars, but in the process leading up to it, attention was also focused on consumption (Keynesian), but the question of whether consumption was really necessary remained, and the economic scale of developed countries alone remained. Demand will eventually become saturated, and even if technological innovation enables new lifestyles and creates new demand, it will not be as strong as it used to be, and the unproductivity of the public sector will become a problem (although it may not be so in Nordic countries). Demand has become a matter of quantity rather than quality, with urbanization and rising living standards in developing countries becoming a large core part of demand as quantity, but also for developed countries. Export industries and overseas expansion have become a lifeline for economic growth. In this way, cosmopolitan civilization was connected to globalization through capital accumulation, but it may be fair to say that this is creating friction with the existing system of the state.

But where did European civilization's taste for capital accumulation and military power come from? Was it not from want? At this point, let us conclude our spatial consideration of civilization.

 

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Civilizations and space 9 ( European cosmopolitan civilizations expansion )

The Reformation coincided with the growth of sovereign nations, but Protestants and Huguenots adopted mercantilism through commerce and industry in order to oppose Spain and its background, Catholicism, and worked to foster sovereign nations. However, combined with the development of military technology that accompanied the ever-increasing scale of warfare, it developed differently from other civilizations and led to the accumulation of capital. Braudel and Wallerstein saw the formation of capitalism in the upper strata of the market and the hegemony that moved to Venice, Anvers, Genoa, Amsterdam, and London, but security was brought about by strengthening military power. As a result, industries developed, capital was accumulated, and the capital was used militarily and economically to strengthen and expand the state itself (developmental cycle).

 

At what point in time did the incident that made us realize this cycle occurred? It was a "capitalist invention" for the economic management of the Italian city-states, and had a great influence on Spain and France, which fought over Italy. Wasn't it the Netherlands, where capitalists had acquired a base in Spanish territory, at the time of the start of the War of Independence (1568) from Spain, which imposed heavy taxes? The Fugger family fell (due to the influx of silver from South America and the bankruptcy of Philip II, etc.), and Italian cities began to fall along with the Old Church, but Spanish Jews moved to the Netherlands, which was the base of capitalism. As it was established, it instigated rebellion against Spain in various parts of Europe and fought against Spain. And the Dutch era begun, which was maintained by fomenting conflicts between sovereign nations*, but it led to the Second Hundred Years' War between France and England, and the Netherlands joined Britain in the Glorious Revolution. maintained life expectancy. Ultimately, however, the Netherlands, like the city-state of Venice, was occupied by Napoleon because of its lack of military power, and it was Britain, a sovereign state, that won the Napoleonic Wars.

*The Treaty of Westphalia is said to have ended the medieval system (Holy Roman Emperor, Pope) and created an unstable system in which sovereign states existed side by side. It was able to secure a commercial area (Baltic Sea), and in the process of narrowing down the number of sovereign states, it was united with Great Britain. The process of Dutch union with England is reminiscent of the process of Britain's union with America.

 

Holland, Britain and the United States ruled the world by sea and later by air, but when empires on land and in Eurasia joined forces,  China, Russia, Iran and the EU became an axis, the age of the maritime nations would change. It might come to an end. If that was meaningful prosperity for mankind , Japan would be forced to make a serious choice. The meaning of this would depend on whether we could correct the disparity in wealth and whether we could create a system that surpasses democracy to achieve the former goal.

 

The capital accumulated by the British Industrial Revolution was invested within European civilization, bringing about the second industrial revolution in Germany and the United States, and the capital was accumulated again, and this time it was invested in civilizations other than Europe, leading to the age of imperialism. became. A global oversupply caused two world wars, but it ushered in the Cold War era, controlled by two major powers, the United States and the Soviet Union. The collapse of the Soviet Union has ushered in an era of America's unipolarity. America tried to control the world (it took over the world's consumption), but there were twists and turns. It seems that they have tried to solve it by increasing the consumption power of the surrounding two major civilizations plus alpha. It is the construction of a large consumption area in Asia that responds to the increase in supply capacity in response to capital accumulation, and we have entered an era in which resource, food, and environmental problems are the premise of this. In the future, the periphery connecting China, India, Indonesia and Oceania may become the center of the world*2.

 

I have been thinking about the relationship and transition between Islamic civilization, which was a cosmopolitan civilization, and European civilization. Islamic civilization could be said to be the first full-fledged cosmopolitan civilization in history, but it expanded spatially further when it was temporarily taken in by the Mongol Empire. Rather, there is also the idea that the Ottoman Turks, the Safavid Dynasty, and the Mughal Empire were greatly influenced by the Mongols and Turkey ＊. These empires, however, were not conscious of accumulating capital, as their creations shew. The empire followed the path of agricultural civilization, exhausting its surplus, deteriorating finances, and excessive tax collection alienating the interior and destabilizing the exterior.

 

*Mongol and Turkish influence on the Ottoman Turks, Safavid Dynasty, and Mughal Empire

These regions were, albeit temporarily or partially, subsumed by the Mongols, and were basically empires established as military states through the development of artillery.Safavid Dynasty  was a kingdom created by the Shiites (Twelve Imams) who did not appear openly. On the other hand, the Ottoman Turks were Sunnis who emphasized the ulama, and the Mughal Empire was strongly influenced by philosophers and Sufis. It may have leaned towards extreme mysticism when the empire was established, but as the empire stabilized, each of these three kingdoms began to show their individuality. The Safavid dynasty was a renaissance phenomenon of Shia Islam, but for the sake of rule, Abbas the Great gradually restored the authority of the ulama. The Ottoman Empire in the west was an empire that aimed to expand to the west, which was unusual for an Islamic empire. The janissaries and others consisted of residents from the European side and occupied a key position in the government (Devsirme). But for law, he used ulama heavily. The Ottoman Turks possessed the characteristics of the conquered Turkic peoples and used the Gazis heavily, but they maintained a cosmopolitan civilization by placing various conquered peoples in the right places. In that sense, it seems that they learned a lot from the Mongol Empire. The Mughal empire in the east used many Persians who had fled from the Safavid dynasty in power, and the influence of the Shiites was strong.  Such a situation combined with a philosophical trend led to the advocacy of a new religion during the reign of Emperor Akbar, but the Sunni sect revived during the reign of Aurangzeb, and the Mughal Empire entered turmoil.

Looking at it this way, the Ottoman Empire was influenced by Sunni and Turkish civilization, while the Safavid Dynasty was a rebirth of Shiite Islamic civilization against Mongolian and Turkish civilization, and the Mughal Empire was a Sunni and Persian civilization. It may be said that it was the Indian (Hindu) rule of a conquest dynasty with

 

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Civilizations and space 8 ( Capital accumulation in Islamic civilization )

From the world system of Mongolia, the Ottoman Turks (1299-1922), the Safavid dynasty (1502-1736), and the Mughal Empire (1526-1858) returned to the cosmopolitan civilization by Islamic civilization. It was at its peak. During this period, European civilization was nearing the end of the Italian Renaissance, and Spain became a powerful force, and capitulation*1 was established between France and the Ottoman Turks, but this was an inequality that would later be tied to Asian countries. It became the model for the treaties. The characteristic of this cosmopolitan civilization of Islamic civilization was that the Ottoman Empire and the Mughal Empire were Sunnis, while the Safavids were Shiites. In the Ottoman Empire, administrative rule by the Qadi developed *2, while in the early days of the Mughal Empire there was also Shia influence *3, which led to the emergence of mixed religions *4 during the era of Emperor Akbar at its peak. . The Safavid dynasty reached its peak during the time of Abbas the Great, but by this time it had become pluralized*5 and prospered through trade, but was destroyed by Afghanistan.

 

*1 Capitration Freedom of residence, freedom of trade, and non-violation of residence within Turkish territory were confirmed for non-Muslims (France was the first). After that, it led to  extraterritoriality and the abolition of tariff autonomy.

 

*2 In Ottoman Turkey, kadis (judges) were selected from the ulama (a class of scholars in Islamic society) in the central and rural areas and conducted trials based on Shariah (law).

 

*3 Bayram Khan, the prime minister of the Mughal Empire who served Emperor Humayun and raised Emperor Akbar, was a Shiite, and was trying to rule under Shiite leadership.

 

*4  mixed religion

The arguments of the orthodox Islamic theologians, who were proud, narrow-minded and obstinate in their way of thinking, turned his mind away from Islam, and in 1582 he (Akbar) made a kind of deism that blended various religions to be founder of the "Religion of God" (Dine Ilahi).

 

*5 The Safavid dynasty was a Shiite dynasty, but during the reign of Abbas the Great, Isfahan was the capital, and various races such as Indians and Armenians lived and traded there.

 

The Ottoman occupation of Constantinople in 1453 and its subsequent expansion into the Balkans (culminating in the First Invasion of Vienna in 1529) indirectly led to the discovery of the New World by Spain, which was at the western edge of European civilization. (1492) and Portugal's expansion into the Indian Ocean (Vasco da Gama, Pioneering the Sea Route to India 1498), but it also turned the attention of Italian cities, which were strongly linked to Islamic civilization, to the Atlantic Ocean.  Venice, which was tied to the Byzantines, faced the threat of the Ottoman Turks, while Genoa's rise to prominence may have something to do with Genoa's investment in Spain and Portugal.

 

Even in the Mongol Empire, the accumulation of capital ultimately did not progress due to wasteful spending, but as in the case of Samarkand, which prospered in the Thamur Empire after that, although it cannot be called capital, there was some kind of urge to accumulate in Asia. It may have existed in successive empires as well. Capital accumulation in modern European civilization, however, was neither the Suleymaniye Mosque in the Ottoman Empire, nor the capital of Isfafar in the Safavid dynasty, nor the Taj Mahal in the Mughal Empire.

 

It was accelerated by the fact that gold and silver sent from the New World America gathered in Seville, Spain, and were scattered throughout Europe through trade and religious wars. The accumulation of capital had begun even before that (Fugger and Medici families), and the development of weapons and the development of mines had a lot to do with the accumulation of capital. It changed from a battle between city-states to a battle between nations and growing sovereign nations, but in the end it turned into a conflict between sovereign nations, Spain and France*. European civilization in this era did not only traded, but also destroyed, and used its wealth to develop weapons. It was a mercantilist to generate military spending, and the navy was the key to defending trade in Portugal, Spain, the Netherlands, and England, and it was possible to hold the trade zone only if the materials for warships and artillery could be secured. Hegemony moved from Holland to England, where the Industrial Revolution blossomed.

 

* 1492: Columbus discovered the New World, 1517: Start of the Reformation, Conflict between Spain and France over Italy, Dutch War of Independence, 1588: Battle of England and Spain. In 1571 Spain and Venice defeated the Ottoman Turks at the Battle of Lepanto. Thirty Years' War (1618-1648), Treaty of Westphalia (1648), Puritan Revolution (1646), Glorious Revolution (1688), Treaty of Karlowitz (1699) (Turkey cedes Hungary to Austria), but Spain held great power until the Treaty of Westphalia. However, the frequency of their interventions was probably more frequent than in the United States today . Fifty years after the Treaty of Westphalia, the Ottoman Empire also began to decline.

 

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Civilizations and space ７ ( the expansion speed of Civilizations )

Regarding the formation of a cosmopolitan civilization, the rapid expansion of the Mongol empire must have had a major impact following Islamic civilization. In terms of rapidity, its speed was comparable to the rise of Islamic civilization with the appearance of Muhammad*.

 

*Arab empire expansion chronology and Mongol empire expansion chronology

The expansion rate of the Arab empire

630 Muhammad captured Mecca

632 Muhammad died, Abu Bakr became caliph.

634 Umar became caliph.

636 Battle of Yarmouk (victory against the Byzantines)

637 Battle of Kadeisiyah (victory against Persia)

642 Battle of Nihavand (victory against Persia)

661 Umayyad dynasty established

 

The Islamic powers formed the framework of the Arab empire in only five years after Muhammad's death. And Muwawiah, who later founded the Umayyad dynasty, was the son of Aboosfyan, a former enemy of Muhammad. It took almost 30 years after Muhammad's death to form the Umayyad dynasty.

 

Expansion rate of the Mongol Empire

1206 Mongol unification

1219 Western expedition begun

1227 Genghis Khan died

1234 Ogotai destroyed Jin

1236 Batou begun western expedition

1253 Flag started the west expedition

1279 Yuan destroyed the Southern Song Dynasty

 

The expansion speed of Mongol forces may had been a little slower than the expansion speed of Islamic forces. Over the course of three generations, the Mongol empire expanded. The Southern Song Dynasty did not perish even after about 30 years from the death of Genghis Khan, but Ogotai destroyed Jin in seven years after his death, and it can be said that the Mongol Empire was established at this point.

 

Just as the expansion of Islamic civilization was due to the seizure and expansion of commerce, it seems that the rapid expansion of the Mongol Empire was also the reason for this. Mongolia was based on advanced Islamic civilization, and China (Yuan) did not rely on Chinese civilization either. The Uyghur merchants and Muslim merchants were entrusted with economic management. The Mongolian imagination is clearly connected to modern China's "One Belt, One Road" initiative. Cosmopolitanism in the Yuan and Mongol empires was not necessarily based on religion in Islamic civilization. However, as the Il Khanate, the Kipchak Khanate, and the Chagatai Khanate became Islamic nations, their position was expedient and their religions were pluralistic. However, in places like China, which had a unique civilization, it seems that there was a strong resistance to being assimilated into Islamic civilization, and in the Yuan dynasty, the royal family became inclined to Lamaism, and this was one of the reasons. Although it was originally tilted as one, there seems to be a slightly deeper meaning here*. It is in the sense of the essential difference between Islamic civilization and Chinese civilization.

 

*Il Khanate, Kipchak Khanate, and Chagatai Khanate eventually adopted Islam as the state religion, but in the Yuan dynasty it was changed to Lamaism. Lamaism had a strong shamanic tinge and was very similar to the mental state of the Mongols. On the other hand, in the Chinese civilization, which was later destroyed by the White Lotus sect, the intellectuals were Confucianism, the masses were Buddhism and Taoism, and the economy was controlled by Islam. In the later conquest dynasty, the Qing dynasty respected Confucianism, which is the morality of the elite of Chinese civilization, as a pose to some extent, whereas the original viewed Chinese civilization lightly and at the same time wanted to make his own mental state a religion as it was. It seems that there was. While the other three khanates faced a universal ummah, a social community called the Islamic community, the Yuan faced (from the Mongolian's point of view) no universality. It seems that the veneration of Lamaism was a countermeasure against Chinese civilization, which tended to assert itself strongly, and the dependence on Lamaism became stronger with the decline of the Yuan Dynasty.

 

The establishment of a cosmopolitan civilization in Europe had, to some extent, a spontaneous element. During the First Crusade, Europe made contact with the Seljuk Turks and the Fatimid dynasty, but European civilization in this period was under the power of the Roman papacy, moving from decentralized feudal rule to consolidation. It was also the era when nations began to emerge*. The economic situation of the Byzantine Empire remained as a trading power in the Mediterranean, but it gradually weakened and was replaced by Venice and other Italian cities. This papal system adopted Latin as a common academic language, and established new cosmopolitan universities in theology and law. In the Middle Ages, monasteries and knightly orders cleared the land, and they played a central role in expanding the territory of European civilization.

 

*Participation in the Crusades

1st Crusade (1096-99) Occupied the Holy Land in 99. Kingdom of Jerusalem established.

2nd Crusade (1147-49) organized by German and French monarchs, failed.

3rd Crusade (1189-92) Ayyubid Saladain captured holy land. Organized by Germany, France, and England. Pilgrimage permit agreement only.

The 4th Crusade (1202-1204) did not go to the Holy Land, conquered Constantinople, and established the Latin Empire.

The Fifth Crusade (1216-1221) attacked Egypt and failed.

6th Crusade (1228) Frederick II of Germany secured the Holy Land through diplomacy, which was recaptured by the Seljuk Turks.

7th Crusade (1248-54) Louis IX of France attacked Egypt and failed.

Eighth Crusade (1270), Louis IX of France attacked Tunis, canceled due to King Louis dying of illness.

 

The Crusades took place from 1096 to 1270, about 200 years, during the time of the Popes. In the first half, the influence of Germany: the Holy Roman Emperor was strong, but in the second half, the influence of France was becoming stronger. The Byzantine Empire, which was a trading nation, was taken over by France and Venice (Latin Empire), and Genoa tried to revive Byzantine. Meanwhile, the conflict between the pope and the emperor continued, reaching a peak at the time of Frederick II, but the power of the emperor declined and the power of France, which had allied with the pope, increased. What emerged throughout the Crusades was the rise of the Italian city-states, the rise of the British and French centralized states, the decline of the power of the popes and emperors, and the Black Death due to trade during the 14th and 15th centuries. 1346-1350) spread throughout Europe, and the Hundred Years' War between England and France (1339-1453) prolonged the life of the Italian city-states. 

 

The cosmopolitan characteristics of Islamic civilization began with a religious community (Umma), passed through the tyranny of the Abbasid dynasty, and was shaped and expanded by the gradual universalization of the spiritual world and the separation of the secular state (9th century). In contrast, in European civilization, a spiritual society was formed out of resistance to the secular society (from the activities of the Cluny Abbey to the struggle for the right to sanction), and the Catholic Church, a religious organization responsible for a robust spiritual world, emerged. In the midst of the chaos caused by the invasion of foreigners, I have the feeling that the ``secular society that had been separated'' was entangled in a net. , and as a result, a cosmopolitan civilization was formed. Even if we call it a cosmopolitan civilization, it seems that the formation process of Islamic civilization and European civilization was greatly different. .

 

The influence of the Mongol Empire was added to both Islamic civilization and European civilization, but the development and expansion of Mongolia for the European civilization sphere initially took the northern route that avoided Islamic civilization ( Lubrok and  Marco Polosfather traveled). The cosmopolitanization of European civilization was partly influenced by the cosmopolitan civilization of Islam, but it may be said that it was more influenced by the cosmopolitan civilization of the Mongol Empire. This is because, in the next era, the Age of Discovery, when he traveled around the Cape of Good Hope and headed for Asia, he hoped that there would be a country of Prester Jhon*, and a vast amount of goods would be found beyond Islamic civilization. It was possible to recognize that India was in Southeast Asia within the Mongolian world system, and the major motivation for the activities of the merchants was to use the trade network established during the era of the Mongol Empire. Isn't it (the discovery of the new continent was a by-product of that)? In addition, the spread of the Black Death, which has driven European civilization into a miserable state, originated in the port of Kaffa (Kipchak Khanate) in the Black Sea, and was brought to Genoa by merchant ships. can be said to have received

※Legend of Saint John

A legend believed in Western Europe between the 12th and 16th centuries. It was said that there was a Christian priest king in Asia, and Pope Alexander III and King Louis IX of France sent envoys to attack Muslims.

 

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Civilizations and space ６ ( Civilizations and Early Modern Renaissances )

8 Islamic Civilization Versus European Civilization

 

According to Ichisada Miyazaki's theory of the Renaissance, the Early Modern Renaissance first occurred in West Asia in the 9th century, followed by the Chinese civilization in the 10th century, the Early Modern Renaissance in the Song Dynasty, the Crusades in the 12th century, and the world domination of the Mongol Empire in the 13th century. Later, the early modern Renaissance arose in 14th-century Europe.

 

As for how to understand the early modern period and the Renaissance, the period before that was the Middle Ages, and while the Middle Ages was the period of the nobility, the early modern period was the period of the common people, and the Middle Ages was the period of religion. On the other hand, the early modern period was an era of commerce, and I thought that the restoration of humanity in the classical revival was a phenomenon related to that. Ichisada Miyazaki saw the phenomenon of economic development empowering the common people and forming a culture based on the common people as a Renaissance phenomenon.

 

The cosmopolitan policy initiated by the Umayyad dynasty must have been behind the early modern phenomenon in the Islamic civilization. The unification policy of currency and language (Arab) by Abbul Malik (AC. 685-705) is that.  Economic prosperity created the culture of Muslim commoners, and here again led to the rediscovery of Greek culture.

 

Seen in this way, the teachings of the Qur'an are rich in cosmopolitan elements, such as the teachings of monotheism, the idea of the Ummah*, and the idea of contracts . It provided an opportunity for unification in West Asia, and took time to promote unification. At first, it was a form of politics and tyranny, but through the reorganization of customary laws, social unification was gradually promoted.

 

※Umma  

Muslims were commanded, as their first duty, to build a community (ummah) in which wealth was equitably distributed and compassion was practiced. This was far more important than any doctrine about God.

 

The situation in West Asia spilled over into Chinese civilization as refugees from Sassanid Persia fled east under the Islamic offensive. Internationalism in the Tang Dynasty overlapped with this, but after the Tang and the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period, the aristocratic society collapsed, and in the Northern Song Dynasty, when the Shidaifu  rose to power, Chinese civilization entered the early modern period and a renaissance emerged, according to Miyazaki. I thought about it. If "Renaissance" means the democratization of society, then yes.

 

During the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period, something new was born, and the whole of China was about to become a unified market*, and the Northern Song Dynasty was a period of economic development. It was also an era of technological innovation and three major inventions (gunpowder, compass, and woodblock printing). But it would be difficult to make it as cosmopolitan as Islamic civilization. However, at that time, Chinese civilization itself was a world, and it may be possible to call this a cosmopolitan.

 

*All of China is a unified market 

From the Song dynasty to the middle of the Qing dynasty, China's economy was in the Grand Canal era, with the population concentrated along the Grand Canal and huge commercial cities developing. The Grand Canal was the trunk line for domestic transportation, and the natural rivers that intersected with it became large and small branch lines, forming a nationwide transportation network.

 

During the Northern Song Dynasty, the nomadic peoples around them gained strength and strengthened nationalism.  Islamic civilization and European civilization are characterized by their expansion through religion, and in that sense Chinese civilization has shown unique movements. Even in the Ming dynasty, which seems to be a repetition of the same era as the Song dynasty,* except for the era of the Yongle emperor, Chinese civilization has shown a stance of restraining expansion.

 

*Chinese History of the Ming Dynasty, like a repetition of the Song Dynasty

The history of the Ming dynasty has many parts that repeat the history of the Song Dynasty in particular.The Ming Empire that Taejo predicted would be a nation-state like the Song Dynasty, and the colonies where different races live would be a burden, so it was unnecessary. And from being a single nation state, isolationism was born .

 

Although it is religious, it is a characteristic of Indian civilization that it did not show a very expansive attitude, just like Chinese civilization. Although there was an aspect of development overseas, we can see that Indian and Chinese civilizations were self-contained through material or spiritual fulfillment within their own civilizations. There was a period of overseas expansion, but it may have been common, especially in Indian civilization, for the wealthy to withdraw from economic activities and retire. There seems to have been a morality different from the accumulation of capital in later European civilizations.

 

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Civilizations and space 5 ( comparison between Indian civilization and European civilization )

The establishment of a cosmopolitan civilization was also seen in the Roman Empire, but it declined along the way. The next establishment would be the emergence of Islam, the Islamic civilization (9th century) established after passing through the orthodox caliphate, the Umayyads, and the Abbasid dynasty. The Indian civilization (5th century), which was founded by Hinduism, may also be applicable, but although the productivity of the Indian civilization was large, commerce declined, probably because of the reduction in world trade. The situation in this area was similar to that in medieval Europe, but it was probably a decline due to the destruction of cities and commercial infrastructure due to the invasion of foreigners while the despotic power was weak. Just as Islamic civilization established its cosmopolitan civilization through the rise of the Mamluks, the Sultanate system, and the Iktar system, Indian civilization may have tried to incorporate the Rajputs, but the Rajputs are fragmented and  It may be said that a cosmopolitan type of civilization was established in India by adopting an Islamic civilization after the Delhi Sultanat .

 

Similarly, in medieval Europe, tyrannical power was weak, so invasions of different peoples were repeated. However, the development of civilization differed from that of Indian civilization because, for a long time, the Byzantine Empire had become a powerful wall that prevented the invasion of Islamic civilization, and Roman Catholicism was in opposition to Greek Orthodox Christianity, which led to the organization of the church. Probably because I made progress. Western Europe grew as a cosmopolitan civilization that valued Catholic doctrine. In Western Europe, Latin became the academic language, and the development of church architecture was very similar to the development of Hindu temples, where Sanskrit became the lingua franca of Indian civilization. .

 

During the Middle Ages in Western Europe, which was the germ of future civilization, the Byzantine Empire protected it from Islamic civilization for a long time. In the case of Indian civilization, Rajput (an invader from the perspective of Indian civilization), and the collapse of the Pritihara dynasty, which was part of it, caused the invasion of Islamic civilization (Kazni dynasty). Moreover, within Indian civilization, Hinduism was not as centralized and organized as it was in Western Europe. However, due to the strong hierarchical structure, it was not unified and was ruled by the conquering dynasty of Islamic civilization for a long time.

 

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Civilizations and space 4 ( formation of cosmopolitan civilizations )

Unlike the other three civilizations, which were based on great rivers, European civilization was born from the Mediterranean Sea like great lake . Greece and Rome emerged from the commercial influences of Egypt, Syria and Phoenicia as the agricultural production of the Orient civilizations increased. One of the reasons why Greece did not become an empire (with the exception of the Macedonian dynasty) was that it was not an agricultural civilization based on rivers, but a commerce and money civilization based on the Mediterranean Sea. It seems that So would the Roman Empire (Rome was heavily influenced by Greece*1). Compared to Indian and Chinese civilizations, Islamic civilization also includes a variety of geographical environments and is similar to Greek and Roman civilizations. 

 

*1 Rome influenced by Greece

During the Persian Wars, Persia and Carthage were linked, and Greece and Rome (against Etruria) were linked. Macedonia and Carthage were united in the dispute over Sicily, and Rome was united with the League of Greek Cities. While the activities of the Greek cities and the Roman cities showed some similarities and differences, both Greece and Rome continued to circulate in various forms of their ``government'', inheriting trade areas. I feel like In modern terms, it may be said that Hegemony moved from Greece to Rome in the Mediterranean world - economy.

*2 The Persian Wars, the Peloponnesian Wars, and the Punic Wars are all ancient wars, but just as Toynbee was inspired by them, there is an impression that these wars have something in common with modern times because these wars were fought over trade spheres. The fact that it was a battle must have been a big factor. Gradually, the Roman Empire began to grant Roman citizenship to dependent territories, but this idea itself was cosmopolitan. In other words, the major characteristic of the cosmopolitan type is that it is a cosmopolitan type society, regardless of the system or era, but the "world economy" has become a system of exploitation through two pipes that make use of internal disparities and external disparities. It seems that Toynbee drew up the idea of the rise of the proletariat inside and the rise of belligerent groups outside.

 

 

There was a time when European civilization tried to preserve the unity of imperialism like Chinese civilization. Such was the flow from the start of the Roman Empire, through the era of the Five Good Emperors, to the era of confusion, and eventually to the establishment of the Byzantine Empire. The Byzantine Empire was a trading nation and had long served as a bulwark for Roman civilization, but in the west it was invaded by Germanic tribes and others, and the period of integration (the Kingdom of the Franks) was short-lived. It continued to receive it frequently*, and European civilization was formed in it, accompanied by separation.

* The Avars and Magyars attacked the Holy Roman Empire, and the Saracens and Normans attacked the Merovingian and Carolingian dynasties respectively.

 

Even though they were cosmopolitan civilizations, the difference between Islamic civilization and European civilization is that Islam spread the Koran, Arabic, and the immigration of Arabs gradually spread, and  that civilization repeated expansion movements, while the Roman Empire as commerce declined,* Christianity spread. As a result, a cosmopolitan civilization has been formed by taking in what various ethnic groups have entered. In this sense, the cosmopolitan type of European civilization seems to have been formed in a way that differs greatly from the cosmopolitan type of Islamic civilization. Also, Christianity did not expand in the same way as Islamic civilization during this period, and the confusion caused by repeated ethnic invasions may have been great for a long time.

 

*Economic decline in the Roman Empire

Since the time of Diocletian, social status and occupation have been fixed, creating a system reminiscent of the Indian caste. First of all, it was the property class (council members) in the city that was placed at the center of state control. State control over trade unions of traders and craftsmen was likewise strengthened. In this way, the cities that formed the cells of Greco-Roman society fell, and the measures taken by the government for military personnel and government officials during a period of instability (inflation) in the value of money in the sector of state finance ) produced an irregular national economy.

 

A surplus was generated by the improvement of agricultural productivity, and it became possible to distribute it, cities were established, and commerce began. The earliest trade began in the Orient. The civilizations of Mesopotamia and Egypt arose, leading to the integration of them into Assyria and Achaemenid Persia, which led to the establishment of Phenicia, Greece, and Rome. On the other hand, in the east, it influenced the distant Indus civilization* and the Yellow River civilization. In India, a wave of Aryans, separate from the Persians, surged.

 

*Indus Valley Civilization and Mesopotamian Civilization

Which came first, the Mesopotamian Civilization or the Indus Valley Civilization? The Indus civilization is said to have been around 2500-1800 BC, and the Mesopotamian civilization around 3000 BC. And if the migration of Indo-European tribes was around 1500 BC, it is said that the Indus civilization was not destroyed by the Aryans, but was destroyed before that. The Indus Valley civilization is said to have spread farther than Mesopotamia, Egypt, and the Yellow River civilization*, but it is said to have disappeared without a trace. It is believed that a variety of factors, including weather, logging, and changes in watersheds, contributed to their disappearance.

 

There were great differences between the urban civilization of Mesopotamia and the Indus civilization in terms of the form of the city and the lifestyle of the inhabitants. Also, the method of carving cuneiform characters on clay tablets was not known in the Indus civilization.

 

In addition to the two major language families (Semitic-Hamitic and Indo-European), there were peoples of unknown origin, including the Sumerians, who built the first urban civilization on the Mesopotamian plains, collectively known as the "Japhetic" language family.

It was the Sumerians who built these city-states centering on the southern part of Babylonia, and they laid the foundation of Mesopotamian civilization.

 

Considering the above, the development of bathing facilities, the improvement of urban planning, etc., are somewhat similar to those of Rome. *Although the deeper part of the stratum is unknown, there might be a possibility that the Indus civilization, the Dravidian civilization, was older than the Mesopotamian civilization. Considering this fact, the fact that it was an unknown ethnic group, and that it was not cuneiform from the beginning, it may be possible to consider the theory that the Indus civilization preceded it.

  

It should be noted that around the 5th century BC, many influential religious figures and philosophers were born, such as Zoroaster in Persia, Socrates in Greece, Buddha in India, and Confucius in China. The establishment of a "complicated human society" was considered to be the background to this, and the existence of cities would have been assumed. And the emergence of cities led to the formation of nations and empires. Alexander's Empire, the Roman Empire, the Mauryan Empire, the Qin-Han Empire, and the Persian Empire.

  

Zarathustra 6th-7th century BC

Socrates 469-399 BC

Shaka 563-483 BC

Confucius 552-479 BC

 

However, it seems that these empires were different. While Greece and Rome were civilizations centered on trade (markets) based on the network of the Mediterranean Sea, Persia, India, and China were civilizations centered on agricultural productivity and despotic power. . Although Indian civilization (especially the Satavarhana and Pallava dynasties in the south) may be a little different. And tyrannical power would have been better to prevent the nomadic tribes from constantly invading from the north.

 

The establishment of these empires cannot be regarded as the establishment of cosmopolitans, because it was a space where peoples different from cosmopolitans live based on common values rather than by coercive power. Rather than being a cosmopolitan type of civilization, the Byzantine Empire also transformed into an empire like Persia and China.

 

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Civilizations and space 3 ( cosmopolitan civilization and local civilization are replaced )

6 Cosmopolitan civilization and Local civilization are replaced.

 

However, cosmopolitan civilization and local civilization may be replaced. Chinese civilization and other civilizations relatively repeatedly exerted their unifying power and continued to renew the shifts of local civilizations, but after the Sung Dynasty, conquering dynasties ruled in the order of Liao, Jin, Yuan, and Qing (but Ming in between). On the other hand, India was not unified after the Mauryan dynasty until the Gupta dynasty, Vardhana Dynasty, the Three Kingdoms*1 period, Delhi Sultanat, and the Mughal Empire. The Mughal Empire was a conquering dynasty. Looking at Chinese civilization and Indian civilization, it seems that local civilization and cosmopolitan civilization alternate, but one major trend can be sensed. The values that were established in ancient times remained strong, and the phenomenon of introverted mass psychology, which is the driving force of civilization, was remarkable. It is also an interesting similarity that the Chinese civilization and the Indian civilization were greatly different in the north and south.

 

India's Three Kingdoms Period (around 750-975), a three-way state of the Pala Dynasty, the Rashtrak Dynasty, and the Pretihara Dynasty. China's Three Kingdoms period (around 220-280) was fought by Wei, Wu, and Shu after the fall of the Later Han Dynasty, and its history was recorded. In China, the revival of the dynasty was always expected, and the dynasty that was established in the next generation compiled the history of the previous dynasty. Before the Three Kingdoms period of India, there was the Vardhana dynasty, but although it is not known whether there was a unity like the Later Han, the countries fought over Kanawji (the capital of the Vardhana dynasty) in the middle reaches of the Ganges.

Indian civilization and Chinese civilization are included in the classification of local civilizations with strong unity as a whole, because they have the resilience to unify even if they are divided. However, the resilience of Indian civilization was considerably weaker than that of Chinese civilization.

The Chinese civilization had a strong element of politics (government through imperial examinations), while the Indian civilization had a strong element of culture (religion). There was also a similarity in the transition from the upper and middle reaches to the Ganges (lower reaches). Both were agricultural cultures, and as productivity improved, cities arose. In the Chinese civilization, there were 100 families, and in the Indian civilization, there were 62views*, and nations arose, and eventually empires. And although the empire was divided and weakened from the inside and the outside respectively, the Chinese civilization and the Indian civilization were revived each time.

* 62views

In Buddhist texts, the new ideas and thinkers that emerged during this period are referred to as '62 views'. Sixty-two, in many senses, corresponds to the “hundred” of the 100 families of China. It is interesting to note that similar developments in the history of thought took place in China and India at exactly the same time, with similar political, economic and social backgrounds. And after this, Emperor Shi Huang, Ashoka, the emperor and king who created the basic model of Chinese civilization and Indian civilization, appeared.

 

I have mentioned European civilization and Islamic civilization as cosmopolitan civilizations, but Islamic civilization, like Chinese civilization and Indian civilization, was formed on the rubble of the oriental civilization with the Nile River and the Tigris-Euphrates River as the mother of the great rivers. was done. Agricultural production increased, cities were established, nations arose, and empires were established. It is a series of empires that started with Assyria, but Hellenism and others were added to the soil of such an oriental empire, and finally, the innovation of the social community (Umma) generated by the Arabs who were the peripheral part became Islamic civilization.  After going through the Umayyad dynasty (ruled by the Arabs) and the Abbasid dynasty*1 ( Islamic empire), Islamic civilization was divided, and from there it shifted to a cosmopolitan form (Islamic system)*2.

 

*1 During the heyday of the Abbasid dynasty, in the second half of the era of Harun al-Rashid, the Barmak family, which had been the prime minister and high officials, was suddenly purged by the caliph Harun al-Rashid. The Barmak family is originally from Balkh (the former capital of Bactria) in Central Asia and was originally Buddhist. After Al-Rashid, disputes arose over the issue of succession, followed by the rebellion of Khorasan, the establishment of the Saffarid dynasty, and the establishment of the Samanid dynasty. Before long, the Mamluk (Turkish slave group) took over the Abbasid court, and the center of Islamic civilization moved from Baghdad to Damascus and Cairo. The power of the caliphate as a despot was weakened, the power of the secular monarchs dispersed, but the Islamic civilization itself remained united.

 

*2 Cosmopolitan form (Islamic system)

It was ruled by the Mongols around the 14th century, and it was a little later, but if you read Ibn Battuta's "A Tour of the Three Continents," you can get a glimpse of the cosmopolitan atmosphere of Islamic civilization. Ibn Battuta ended up as a kadi (law official) in his hometown of Morocco, but the story depicts a situation in which he was welcomed as a highly educated jurist in India and the Maldives. From the 9th century Islamic jurisprudence developed in Islamic civilization, while mysticism (Sufism) also developed, and the Islamic society, the Umma, expanded. Although Ibn Battuta's time preceded the height of Islamic civilization, the Ottoman Turks, the Safavids, and the Mughal Empire, such cosmopolitan consciousness continued.

 

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Civilizations and space 2 ( cosmopolitan civilizations and local civilizations )

4 Cosmopolitan civilizations

 

Civilizations that are separated from each other but share some common values and have active exchange of information and trade are called cosmopolitan civilizations.

 

Such civilizations include Islamic civilization (after the Umayyad dynasty) and European civilization (from the late Middle Ages through the emergence of capitalism to the present day). At first, there was a strong focus on the introduction of the monetary system and common languages (Arabic and Latin)*1, but it later became politically divided into nations and transformed into a world-economy*2.

  

*1 The earliest example of the introduction of a monetary system and a common language at about the same time may be that of the First Emperor of Qin (around 213 BC). At first, China was also a collection of several nations, but after the Qin and Han dynasties, it went beyond the cosmopolitan type to a despotic type of government, and became a regional civilization. Later, during the Umayyad period, Abbul-Malik (ruled 685-705) introduced a common money and language (Arabic). In European civilization, Latin was the common language in the west and Greek was the common language in the east. A common currency did not materialize, especially in the west. In European civilization, money was used in each region, and a network between cities was gradually formed over a wide area, resulting in the establishment of a cosmopolitan civilization.

 

*2 world-economy  Fernand Braudel's concept: It does not mean the world economy, but refers to the state in which several nations gather to form a single economic system.

 

 

5 Local civilizations

 

What are the characteristics of local civilizations in contrast to cosmopolitan civilizations? A civilization that has a strong center and is strongly controlled by politics or culture at the center is called a Local civilization.

 

I mentioned Chinese civilization and Indian civilization as such civilizations.

 

Chinese civilization was modeled by Qin Shi Huang, and Indian civilization was modeled by Ashoka of the Mauryan dynasty. However, as mentioned earlier, Indian civilization was often politically divided. Both the Chinese civilization and the Indian civilization may have initially had a situation like the "world economy" mentioned earlier, but they could not expand outward like European civilization and Islamic civilization.

 

Chinese civilization*1 and Indian civilization*2 were classified as local civilizations in that expansion was slowed down and internal despotism and control increased. It may be said that Chinese civilization is controlled by politics, and Indian civilization is controlled by culture. The impetus for Chinese civilization to become such a civilization was the introduction of the imperial examination system by the Sui Dynasty, the establishment of a financial state in the Northern Song Dynasty, and the development of control over the surrounding ethnic groups through economic policies, followed by the conquests of the Liao, Jin, Yuan, and Qing dynasties. It became a civilization ruled by a dynasty.

 

*1 The order is Qin, Former Han, Later Han, Wei and Jin Southern and Northern Dynasties, Sui, Tang, Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms , Northern Song/Liao , Southern Song /Jin, Yuan , Ming , Qing , Republic of China,  the People's Republic of China (underlined parts are dynasties ruled by non-Han people).

 

*2 Transition of Indian civilization Indus Civilization Early Vedas, Late Vedas, Kosala Magadha, Maurya, Satavahana Kushana , Gupta Pallava Pandya, Vardana Charukya Pallava, Three Kingdoms (Puitihara: Rajput dynasties, Rashtrakuta, Pala )・Chola, Slave Dynasty , Delhi Sartanat Vijayanagar, Mughal Empire , Indian Empire , Indian Republic

The rise and fall of dynasties in Indian civilization was violent in the north and relatively stable in the south.

 

In contrast, what is interesting is that Indian civilization became a local civilization because Buddhism and Jainism, which were commercial powers during the Gupta dynasty, declined, and Hinduism, which was linked to the dynasty, became a local indigenous religion. This is the point of absorbing religion, and rather the complex caste system deepened during the Rajput dynasties. After the Gupta Dynasty, although there were differences between the north and the south, India was culturally common, but politically divided, a state similar to European civilization in the Middle Ages.

 

But unlike European civilization, Indian civilization was conquered by Islamic civilization. The slave dynasty, the Delhi sultanat, the Mughal empire, the Indian empire and the Indian civilization also became a civilization dominated by the conquering dynasty.

Around the time of the Mongol Empire, the cosmopolitan Islamic civilization came to encompass the Chinese and Indian civilizations, both of which were local civilizations, for a short period of time.

 

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Civilizations and space 1 ( Each civilization is a pillar that supports the earth )

Civilizations and space

 

1 Each civilization is a pillar that supports the earth.

 

Today, the planet Earth itself is like a temple to mankind. It would be a temple supported by at least four pillars.

 

The temple may be a lighthouse that illuminates the vast universe.

 

2 This temple has four main pillars.

 

 The four pillars are European civilization, Islamic civilization, Indian civilization, and Chinese civilization.

 Why are these four pillars of civilization?

This is because each of these four pillars is the center of a large vortex, and has influenced the semi-civilization* around it. Christianity was at the center of European civilization. Islam was at the center of Islamic civilization. The center of Indian civilization was Hinduism, and in ancient times Buddhism. Confucianism was at the center of Chinese civilization.

 

*A semi-civilization is a smaller civilization under the influence of the vortex of civilization.

 

Among them, Islamic civilization is the only one whose religion is the name of the civilization. This is because there are a wide variety of regional names, such as North Africa, West Asia, Central Asia, and Southeast Asia.

European civilizations are diverse, including North and South America, Russia, and Oceania, so it may be possible to call them Christian civilizations. However, it is not called as such because North and South America and Oceania  cnsisted of  immigrants from Europe, and Russia was also established by Normans and Slavs, and on top of that, they are the heirs of Greek Orthodox Christianity, so it is called European civilization. Called by the name of the region*.

 

*European civilization is composed of Latin, Germanic, and Slavic races, so the name of the region is attached to the head of the civilization, not the religion.

 

Although there are geographical and racial differences, Islamic civilizations differ in their origins. Before that, there was the Orient, into which Mesopotamian and Egyptian civilizations flowed, the Assyrian Empire and the Persian Empire, to which Hellenism joined. After the birth of Islamic civilization, Turkish and Mongolian culture was added to Arab culture, and it gradually spread and influenced the surrounding area. Islamic civilization turned out to be a very complex civilization (although Islamics formation and ideas were very simple). This is why Islamic civilization is not called by name of regions .

 

3 Civilizations include cosmopolitan civilizations and regional civilizations.

 

Cosmopolitan civilizations are civilizations like European civilization and Islamic civilization, while regional civilizations are civilization like Chinese civilization and Indian civilization*. The "cosmopolitan type" is a community centered on a network of nations with thriving trade, while the "regional type" is a community centered on despotic rule.

 

*Indian civilization may not be unconditionally a regional civilization. Indian civilization is not a civilization like the Chinese civilization, where unified dynasties repeatedly rise and fall. The period of division was long, and the situation was often different between the north and the south.

 

Although the Indian civilization was often politically divided, the cultural state was largely unified by Hinduism after the Gupta dynasty. In addition, before the British Industrial Revolution, India was very economically developed by exporting cotton cloth (Even after being incorporated into the British Empire, Britain's balance of payments deficit was covered by India's current account surplus). . Even before that, the Kushan dynasty and the Satavahana dynasty had a cosmopolitan element, such as the discovery of gold coins of the Roman Empire. However, what is not included in the cosmopolitan type here is that the expansion of Buddhism stopped midway (although Buddhism and Hinduism also advanced into Southeast Asia *１), and that Indian civilization somehow withdrew halfway through. Since it seems, it was included in the regional type civilization. This is markedly different from European civilization and Islamic civilization, in which trade continued to expand along with missionary work.

 

*１　There are two stages of “Indianization”. Around the time of the Satavahana Dynasty (1st century AD), Indian civilization expanded to Southeast Asia, where port city states were established. Later, during the Gupta period, Hinduism and Buddhism influenced Southeast Asia (late 4th century to early 5th century).

 

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Civilizations and time 14 ( Social science and various forces )

History, or social science, has long developed through causal relationships, descriptions, and the diversification of viewpoints. seems to have come And while the natural sciences began to develop based on mechanics, the social sciences tended to be more medical and biological. Academic development has been made in the sense of treating social problems, but just as medicine and biology have greatly benefited from the achievements of physics, social sciences have learned much from mechanics and physics. maybe we should start. The starting point will be the analysis of various forces in civilization and history. In the social sciences, economics may have some similarities to physics. Economics can be said to be a science that believes in certain powers. A kind of force is based on the idea that "price or something equivalent to a price" serves as a signal and influences the behavior of the demand side and the supply side, that is, the price can be a force that motivates human behavior. That's why. Various factors have caused the price function to stop working, which has led to differences of opinion. Has economics oversimplified human society? The position of economics has been the position of the United States and the viewpoint of economic news, but it does not seem that the various civilizations of the world will accept it as it is.

 

Why did the achievements of physics have had an impact on other disciplines, and why have they provided a universal foundation? It may be hinted at by thinking about the difference between economics and physics. The difference between economics and physics seems to lie in the belief in a single force or the existence of forces. While economics believes in the power of price, physics focuses on the individuality of various forces (gravity, light, electric power, magnetic force, nuclear power) and attempts to explain them in a unified manner.

 

Applying this to the theory of civilization, Europe, America, Russia, the Middle East, Africa, India, and China are all different ``fields,'' and each ``field'' has its own unique characteristics. ” and are working. Is it difficult, or even impossible, to explain this in terms of a single force, the "price" in economics ? Therefore, the way of thinking that provides hints for the diversification and integration of the world should not be based on current economics, but rather on physics.

 

What are the unique powers of each “place” or “civilization”, and what are the concepts and theories that make it easier to explain them? As I have said so far, "values" that change over time and based on them, people want "richer lives", or "community development" based on "values", and trying to return to what is inherent in human society. Isn't it taking into consideration .

 

By applying such things to each civilization, it will be possible to understand how different civilizations think and act in that way. Although the power game-like power factor also accompanies history.

 

With that out of the way, let's wrap up. What I have been thinking about in this article is what is the "motive force that changes history." And I confirmed the existence of various forces in this kind of scholarship and social science. Toynbee and Spengler had already intuitively grasped things like "trends" in the history of civilization, but the position of this paper is neither an energetic theory like Spengler, nor a fatalism like Spengler, nor a function theory like Toynbee. I didn't. Nor was he in the position of reading characteristics and functions common to one civilization (e.g., European civilization) and extending them to other civilizations. On the other hand, it was also different from the position of historical science that pursues causal relationships.

 

The concept of "the driving force to change civilization and history" is similar to the position Newton took in "Principia", and in the social sciences, it is necessary to start with definitions of various forces and analyze the characteristics of each force to establish a more solid foundation. I take the position that it is possible to obtain In the social sciences, the value of the subject is inevitably large, but that would be like discussing the characteristics of the earth or the moon individually when explaining gravitational force in physics.

 

The concepts of minimum force are ``technical efficiency force'', ``social structure force'', ``reaction force'', and ``value''.  and  environment give direction to these.

 

In order to prove the existence of various forces such as "technical efficiency force", "social structure force", "reaction force", "value", and "environment", we have no choice but to investigate the history of each civilization, draw up historical facts, and make inferences. . However, if we make a hypothesis to gain some perspective on the work of induction, the following five principles may be mentioned.

 

1 Values change over time.

2 Technical efficiency force is a function of value.

3 Social structural force is a function of value.

4 Reaction force is a function of value.

5 Environmental Principles (Field Principles*)

 

These five principles are the principles of various forces in social science that are important in inferring what kind of problems each civilization is currently facing and how they are trying to solve them. These ideas were born from the synthesis of the considerations of past historians, but they are also considered to be important concepts of force as tools for predicting the future. In addition to this, the issue of the emergence of creative rulers and the ability of the masses to imitate, a theme discovered by Toynbee, may become important.

 

Also, in this paper, time is initially regarded as a resource, and on the left-hand side, the production volume of creation, which is the output produced by time (the sum of the production volume of mental creation and the production volume of material creation) is shown, On the right-hand side, we place technological efficiency, social structure, and counteracting forces as factors that affect the production of creations, and assume that these forces are influenced by the direction of value that changes over time.

 

In this formula with time as one axis, time itself exists as a resource, but it is neutral and does not form anything unless the players in each history invest it.  But historical players weren't aware that the value they held was a function of time and that they existed above it.

 

When thinking about formulas with time as one axis, it is easy to understand that what forms the basis of their development is how we perceive "value." Because in the time axis, by specifying a certain point in time and specifying values, the technological efficiency, social structural force, and reaction force of that society are selected and specified, and the spiritual creation, material one . This is because the amount of production of the creative creation is determined. Therefore, it is necessary to think about the structure of value. Value is the premise of various forces, but even at one point in time, it can be diverse ( various genres), and in a sense, it is like a "group in the image space". It may take shape. On another occasion, I would like to consider the theme of "civilization and value."

 

A formula with time as one axis is a 'relational formula' that expresses the path through which time, a resource that has no meaning by itself, leads to the production of creations. Values (groups in image space) as a function of time influence technological efficiency forces, social structure forces, and reaction forces, and these factors produce mental and physical creations (substantial space). and This is based on the idea of the production function in economics, but I also touched on the problem that there is no common element that connects the right-hand side and the left-hand side. The problem with this formula is that each concept is not quantified, and neither the technical efficiency force, social structure force, and reaction force on the right side nor the mental creation on the left side is quantified, nor is the value. It has not been quantified, and how much force or value will be converted into data and digitized, or whether something like "currency" that converts value or power will be invented. I guess it depends.

 

From a different point of view, this "relational formula" can be said to be a formula that systematically expresses the structure of mental energy. Value changes over time. However, it is also possible to think that it will change through the "cross-cutting" contact of economy, politics, and culture. On the other hand, this paper recognizes that there is something like "mental energy that fluctuates only in relation to time", and that it is stronger than "cross-cutting relationships". This perception is inspired by Toynbee's idea of civilization, that civilization commits suicide, that the collapse of civilization does not come from outside enemies, but from within. In other words, the powers move in a fused manner during the period of development, but move separately during the period of decline.

 

The model we are trying to build is naive. However, there are some obvious differences from traditional historical analyses. It analyzes the various forces of civilization change and stands on the viewpoint of whether they can be utilized in the future. And this is precisely what Spengler and Toynbee were trying to do intuitively and boldly in the early days of civilization studies. And then Braudel and Wallerstein appeared, and something may be forming. Just as feudalism gave rise to sovereign nations, it would correspond to the emergence of "civilized economies" from sovereign nations.

 

From a policy perspective, for example, countries like Japan are good at learning models from other countries and developing, but are not good at creating their own models. For example, to avoid unnecessary conflicts between countries with different nationalities, there are a number of situations in which the idea of this model can be applied.

 

Understanding and manipulating value. Understanding and manipulating forces. This model is oriented to adjusting the driving force through manipulation in this way, and proposes one of the hypotheses.

 

In addition, as the battle against the environment is now entering the stage of the battle against time, it seems that this model has the potential to respond as one of the worldviews seen from the resource of time.  After the era of the world system, it will be the era of various civilizations, and what is necessary for them to coexist and co-prosper will become important.

 

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