The Body (Notes)

http://www.eigozai.com/WORD/A_HTML/A_1.htm#a or an

http://readingmonkey.blog45.fc2.com/blog-entry-413.html

http://www.englishcorner.vacau.com/vocabulary/dolchfreq.html


http://media.voanews.com/documents/2009Edition_WordBook.pdf


http://www.webopedia.com/TERM/S/squeeze_page.html

http://www.lib.umd.edu/EASIA/japaneseversion.html


http://d.hatena.ne.jp/sakstyle/20080404/1207317443


http://www.toptenz.net/top-10-most-famous-thought-experiments.php

http://www.youtube.com/watch?feature=endscreen&NR=1&v=0fXfh-IFMSs

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STEP 1 . The Body (Notes)
a , the, (is), and.
have, put, take, 1.
at, between, in, off, on, 3.
I, this, that, 5.
(my), Part II.
What things (20) and qualities (5) come best into our first learning group of 25 ? Clearly there is a strong argument for making a start with their body and its parts. The body and its parts are with us for pointing purposes wherever we go. The schoolroom may be without pens and ink, or the teacher may be in the open air where there are no doors and windows ; but all learners have bodies.
The only trouble about starting with the body is that I and my are needed for talking about its parts, and the other words of this sort are not necessary till a later stage. On the other hand, there are good reasons against starting with the forms of put, take, and have which would be forced on us by statements in the third person ; so common-sense gives us I and my, together with this and that for pointing purposes.
Take, put, and have are our first examples of 'names of operations'. The work which such words do has been made clear in the account of the chief sorts of word in Basic (Part I), as has the part taken by the names of directions, of which five come into the present Step. The chief uses of the opposites off and on, and their relation to one another, are covered in the pictures. A bird's-eye view of the 13 chief operation-words and of all the direction-words is given in the pictures after the Notes on Step 10, which will be of great use when enough examples of these two sorts of words have come in.
It will be noted that the parts of the body are not separate things which may be put or taken here and there quite in the same way as boxes or tables. We normally get a grip of what we take as part of the act of taking, in whatever direction we take it ; and we put what we have taken on the table, or in some other direction such as up or down. But for general purposes taking one's hand off one's head is the same sort of act as taking a box off a table.
Though the body-words are here put into simple statements, so that they may be talked about like other things, it is a good idea to get such words into the memory in the same way as in a quicker and quicker rhyme :
Eye, nose, ear ;
Mouth, tongue (here) ;
Head, face, chin ;
(Put) thumb (in) ;
Chest, finger, hand ;
Leg, knee (and)
Arm.
This and that, as will be noted, are used in two ways : 1 . by themselves, having the sense "The thing here (there) I am pointing to" ; 2 . as pointing words in front of the name of a thing.
My head," and so on. In English, the owner-forms such as My (your, his, and so on) are regularly used in connection with the parts of the body, where other languages might have the word for 'the' or no word at all.
"I have a nose." The use of have here may seem a little different from its use in such statements as "I have a book," but a natural expansion of this simplest use makes it possible for us to say that we 'have' anything of which we are in a wide sense the owners.
"The right side." Take note that names of qualities are used not only after is but before names of things (not after), and that when the is needed in addition to a quality-word, it comes before the quality-word. The same order is the rule when any of the other 'adjectives' in the Operations list (a, this, that, and so on, and the owner-forms of the 'pronouns', such as my) are used with the quality-words.
"A thumb and fingers." Take note 1. of the form for more than one 'fingers' ; and 2, of the fact that a(n) has no form for use before names in the form for more than one, and that these, when they have no need of the or some other pointing-word, are used by themselves. -- The thumb is sometimes looked on as one of the fingers, so that we may say "I have 10 fingers," but frequently, as here, it is named as a separate thing.
"Fingers on my hand." The simplest picture of on is that of something resting on top of another thing, but anything which is supported by or fixed to another is on it, even when what is on anything is a part of it.
Foot and tooth, though they might come in here, have been kept till a later stage because they are among the small number of words whose forms for more than one are not made by the addition of ' s .' See the Note at the end of Step 5.
Opposites : this -- that , off -- on , put -- take.
Back to Body. Hint : swap to that page, do not use link.
Step 2 . FOOD (Notes)
some.
go , may , will , 1.
not , 2.
from , of , to , with , 3.
here , there , 4.
(it) , 5.
or , 8.
A important point to be noted here is that we do not put a before the names of substances, such as food, soup, bread, etc., because they are not, like things such as head, meal, basin and so on, looked on as units, complete in themselves (which is the idea given by a). When we are talking of a substance in a general way, we put nothing in front of it ("Cake is sweet") ; when we are talking of an amount of it which is present at the time, we commonly, though not necessarily, put in some word giving this idea of 'an amount of' ("Some food is on the table"). When the is used before the names of substances it has the sense of "the amount of butter, etc., here present or in question.
The picture opposite will be of help in making clear this division of things into 'things' in the narrower sense of 'units', and 'substances' (of which such 'things' are made). It will be seen from the picture that when the name of a substance has a quality-word in front of it, it is made clear that what we are talking of is 'a sort of' cloth etc. ("a cloth of good quality"), we do make use of a and that in that sense the name of a substance may even be used in the form for more than one ("different cloths"). But this is a point which it will be better not to give the learner till a later stage.
Have . From these examples we may see the development from having of food on our plates to the having of it (by the process of taking it into our stomachs) as part of ourselves.
With . In its root use, as in "I have some bread with it," with is simply a sign that the things joined by it are together. But in the statement, "I put the meat in my mouth with the fork," the fork not only goes into the mouth with the meat, but is the instrument by which it is put there. This gives a clear example of the way in which with, from having the general sense of connection in space or time, comes in addition to be used for the connection between an act and its instrument.
It . The form which may take the place of the name of a thing or animal (not a person) which is being talked about. For the present, like any name of a thing, it will be used only before is (will or may) or after the names of operations or directions.
"I take the spoon . . . and put . . . ." In a statement in which the same person is said to do two or more acts, it is not necessary for the doer to be named with every act.
May . has the general sense of "It is possible;" but, as noted in the ABC, a thing is possible in two ways. In the first, some person makes it possible (by giving power or authority) ; in the second, general conditions do so. The examples of may given here are of the first of these users.
Because will and may are only helping words, the name of some act necessarily comes after them.
"I may not have." "The taste of salt is not bitter." Take note that not-statements using may or be (is) are made by simply putting not straight after these words.
"Cake and cheese." The words cake and cheese are used not only for the 'pictured' things to which we give these names, but in addition for the substances of which these things are made. Take note that some is frequently not put in where it is clear without it that we are taking of "a certain amount of" whatever is in question.
"An orange ." An is used in place of a before words starting with the letters a, e, i, and o ; and with u when it has an open sound, as in umbrella, uncommon, and so on.
Of , which is used like the name of a direction, seems at first to have little connection with space. It is, however, a development from off. The skin off the orange is the skin of the orange. That which is taken off was necessarily at one time on, and so is a part of, or, more generally, the property of, the thing from which it was taken. This development is clearly pictured on the opposite page and over.
Opposites : from -- to , here -- there.
Back to Food
Step 3 . WORK (Notes)
(are) , other
do , make , 1
after , against , through , 3.

"The learning of Basic English." Though the first use of of is as a sign of connection between property and owner, it has come to be used for certain other relations uniting two things, most of which are simple developments of the idea of property. Here the relation is that between a process and the material on which it is working ; in "a sort of work" it is that between a thing taken generally and any special division of it.
"With my brain" is an example of the complete development of the use of with as a mark of the instrument -- with little suggestion of connection in space (see Step 2, Note 2). "With a push" is almost parallel, but here the with is pointing to the process by which the act is effected, and not to the instrument in the narrower sense.
And . The use of and as a joining-word between statements, which is here seen for the first time, is a simple development from the use between words.
The examples of may in this Step give the second use (noted in connection with Step 2).
Are . The form used for is when talking of more than one thing. See page 48.
Scissors . This word has only the form for more than one, and is necessarily used with are. The rest of the statements will generally make clear if there are more scissors than one.
"I have not . . . " "Tired bodies will not do." Statements using not with have or will are made in the same way as with may and be. (see Note 2, page 2).
"After work ." Though after is sometimes used of position in space, and is rightly grouped with the names of directions, it is chiefly used of position in time, and for that reason comes in first in this sense. The idea of time as a framework in which events are placed makes it natural for it to be talked of as a sort of space, and most of the names of directions may equally well be used in connection with time.
"Have some rest," "have some play." It is not hard to see why we say that we have processes and experiences which we undergo, and which are readily looked on as (in the wider sense noted on Note 1 page 1) our 'property'. For this reason have is the right 'operator' for use with rest and play. But take note that it is not the right one with work, with which do is used. A general reason for this will be given later (Note 10, page 4), but for the present it will be enough to keep these fixed uses in mind.
Back to Work.
Step 4 . THE WEATHER (Notes)
every , north , south , east , west ,
be , come , get , see , 1.
down . over , under , up , 3.
only , out , very , 4.
but , 8.

"In the summer." Another example of the name of a direction used in connection with time. See Notes on Step 3.
"In the winter it is cold." This simple change of order, by which the words giving the time and place, or other conditions of an act, are put first, is used sometimes to give weight to these conditions, sometimes, as here, only to get a smooth and balanced effect. It is not necessary for the learner to make use of this trick-- the regular order is never wrong--but the examples in these steps will keep him from being troubled when he comes across it in his general reading.
"Only in the winter." Only is put before the words at which it is pointing, and may be used with the name of an operation, thing or quality, or, as here, with any group of words if their sense makes it possible for them to be limited in this way.
"Rain and snow do not come." With all 'operators' but be, have, and the helping-words may and will, statements using not have to be made with the help of do. (This is the rule even when do itself is the operator). The position of not is the same with the helping-words, that is, straight after do and before the name of the act.
"With a cloud in it." With as the sign for the general condition of being together in space, is frequently used for joining the names of two things, the special relation between which is then made clear by another direction-word coming after the second name.
Up and down are used by themselves in this Step, but like all other names of directions they may take words after them.
"I put my coat on." We put clothing on our bodies, but in talking of this common process it is right to say simply that we put clothing on. In statements of this sort, where the words which would normally come after a direction-word are not put in, the direction-word keeps the same position which it would have if they were there.
The relation between be, the general name of the operation, and is, the special form, is to be pointed out.
The word very is used with names of qualities (not with names of things or 'operators') and regularly comes before them.
"Have a fall." another example of the use of have noted in connection with "have some rest", N3-1.
"The very cold winds." The, unlike a, is used before names in the form for more than one in the same way as before names pointing to one thing.

Opposites : come -- (go) , over -- under , up -- down ,
north -- south , east -- west
Back to Weather
Step 5 . THE FAMILY (Notes)
(one) ; (was) .
give , I .
before, for, 3 .
still, 4 .
he (see) , 5 .
no , 6 .
(am) , Part II .

"My father." The small boy talking is clearly not the owner of his father, but the "forms for owner" are used loosely in English for any special connection ; for example, with the acts we do ("my work"), the families of which we are a part, the friends we have, the houses in which we are living, and the events and processes which we go through ("my fall made me black and blue," "my development was slow").
"Some fathers and mothers." The root sense of some, as seen earlier in some food, and so on, is "an amount of " or "a number of," but in general statements as here, this sense is more strongly coloured by the idea of a comparison between 'some' and 'all'. In the first sort of example, the some is frequently not put in, because it is clear without it that we are not talking of 'all' food, or 'all' cake ; but if we said "Fathers and mothers are not young" it would have the force of a statement about all fathers and mothers.
When two names are jointed by and, the name of a quality, or any other limiting word which has to do with the two, is frequently put only before the first. But this is not done if the sense of the statement does not make the connection clear. In this example there is no possible doubt that it is "some fathers and some mothers" who are being talked about-- not "some fathers and (all) mothers."
"Not every son." Not may be placed before certain words other than the names of operations. The number of such words is small, and for the present the only ones for the learner's attention are every and all. Let it be made clear that no general use of this trick is to be attempted.
One. Basic number-word for 1.
He. The form used in place of a name when talking about a male person. Unlike the name itself, or the form it, it may not be put after names of operations or directions without a change of form. So far it may be used only before is, will, or may.
"He is still a baby." Still is placed after be, will, and may.
Am . The form of be which is used after I in place of is.
She . The female form of he, covered by the same rules.
"Before the birth." Before is the opposite of after, and for that reason, like after, it is first given in connections with time. But its use in connection with space (in the sense of "in front of") is much more general than that of after. You may say "I put my hand before my face," but not "I put my hand after my head." After is used of space only when there is present the idea of order as in "There is a question-mark after the word," or "The men were walking one after another.
"Baby boy," "baby brother." Special attention is to be given here to the use of names of things as quality-words. The name which is used as a quality-word naturally comes first, so that we say boy baby when the sex of the baby is news. When words are put together in this way, we get the first form of what, by further development, may become a 'complex word.' See pages 54-57 of the ABC.
Was . The form of be which takes the place of am and is when talking about past time.
"The baby of the family." This use of the word baby for "the youngest," that is, the one who is nearest to being a baby, is a very simple development which will give no trouble.
"Get a pain." Get is the general word for the process of coming to have. This process may, as in the earlier examples, be some act done by the person, or it may, as here, be an event outside his control.
"Ready for a meal," "for my baby brother." For, though it is clearly parallel in its use and sense to words which are signs of direction, is no longer the name of a simple direction or position in space. It may frequently be, as here, the sign of connection between a condition thing, or act, and its purpose (in the direction of which it is, as we might say turned). It has another almost equally important use as the sign of exchange, of which examples will be given later.
"Give food to the baby." The natural direction of the act of giving is to.l
"Make a baby ready for play." Though in its simplest sense make is used for the process of producing a new physical thing, it is a short step from that idea to the process of producing a new quality or condition. When it is used in this way the name of the person or thing in whom the condition or quality or condition. When it is used in this way, the name of the person or thing in whom the condition or quality is caused comes between make and the word naming this.
"Some are married." Some may be used by itself when it is clear what group or substance it is limiting. Here we see from the sense that it is pointing to "the brothers and sisters of my father and mother."
There are four Basic words which make the form for more than one by some other charge than the addition of 's.' They are given together in this Step (tooth, foot, man, and woman) because their changes of form have something in common (teeth, feet, men, and women), and so they may readily be got by heart as a group.
Here is the note in the ABC about all forms for number which are not regular. Some of the words which take these changes have come in earlier Steps ; others (baby, family) are given here ; other will be seen later.
"In addition to the four changes of form, words ending in certain letters may make some change in these before the s of the form for number (though the sound is much the same as if only 's' had been put at the end). Here is the complete list :--
(1) F or fe becomes ve :-- leaves, selves, shelves, knives.
(2) All endings in y with a stopped sound before it (that is, all but boy, day, key, monkey, play, ray, tray, and way) move the y changed into ie : as army, armies, and berry, berries.
(3) All ending in o, s, x, sh, or ch, (but for stomach) put in e between these letters and the s ; as arch, arches, and match, matches." ABC, p. 10.

Opposites : before -- (after)
he -- she

Back to 5 . Family

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Notes

Basic Step By Step
BY
C. K. OGDEN

TO THE READER

The purpose of this book is to give a general idea of the stages by which Basic English, as outlined in the ABC, may be made part of the teaching system of any country.

It is not itself a school book, and is not designed for regular school use in its present form, though it will be of value to learners, or to teachers who have a good working knowledge of the system.

Basic is an international language complete in itself, and is at the same time the best First Step for those who are going forward to normal English. Learners in other countries will necessarily have books in their natural languages, as they do for normal English or any other strange tongue; and such books have to be based on the experience of those who are teaching in those countries.

For this reason we did not, at the start, make any attempt to give step-by-step material for use in teaching; though from 1918-1928, while the details were being worked out, and the system was being tested, the needs of the school were kept in view from every angle. The ABC was designed as a general guide which would make it possible for any expert teacher to put the material in the best order for his purposes.

Much very good work was done in this way, with the help of Basic by Examples, but not all teachers had the time to make the necessary adjustments for themselves, and there was a great desire for more detailed help. Questions about the best way of teaching the words in relation to the structure of the system came in at the rate of more than fifty a week, and it was not possible to give everyone a separate answer. But here is part of the answer which has been given to our representatives, and it is printed in the hope that in book form it may be a guide to others.

The printing of the word-list in January, 1929, put us in touch with an increasing number of teachers, whose experience has been of the greatest value. They have sent us their suggestions, and on these, and those of experts in all countries, the present material has been based.

The two things necessary for teaching-material are a grouping of the words in a framework, for the purpose of getting them fixed in the memory, and a development of the system by simple stages.

The word-groups here printed are those which have been used in the past ten years at the Orthological Institute for the training of teachers, all of whom have been requested to make the same sort of lists for themselves. The order of the groups was an open question--dependent on special needs; and in the same way different conditions may make different frameworks necessary. But the structure of Basic itself is the best key to the order of the parts.

Some learners will be able to get more profit than others out of the short account of the different sorts of words in Basic, which is the natural first step to any language. Those who make the right start will be rewarded at every later stage, and this is specially true of a system as simple as Basic.

Here, for the first time, is a chance of getting free from the strange power which words have had over us from the earliest times; a chance of getting clear about the processes by which our ideas become fixed forms of behavior before we ourselves are conscious of what history and society are making us say.

Those who take this chance will not only be in a position to get through the work on the different word-groups much more quickly than others, but will make the discovery that they have a new sort of control over their thoughts and their talk. The words will become a help to their thought, and Basic will become an instrument for talking freely. Even the very young may be trained to a sense of these new values; in fact, those with no education are frequently quicker in their reaction than persons who have been through the school machine. On the other hand, there is nothing about Basic as a language to make any new or special form of education necessary. The words in this book are all common words, and they are put before the learner in groups such as would be made in any organization of word-material. If it is desired to get the right words by heart in the right order, as a bit of memory work, for business purposes or as a step to normal English--then these are the best words, and this grouping is as good as any other. There is no need to be troubled about reasons and causes if we are only interested in doing a trick as well as others; and these 30 steps have been chiefly designed as a guide to the art of talking and writing as well as others, by getting control of the most necessary word-groups in English. They do, however, take us to the top of a building, complete in itself for all the needs of everyday existence; and when we are at the top, we will see that the view is wide enough for those who have reasons for looking further. An interest in the structure of the building, or in the fact that it has a solid base, may be more important for those who go on living in it (possibly after experience with other buildings), than for those who are only on the steps because they have been ordered to go up.

C. K. OGDEN.

LIST OF PAGES

Part I . Introduction -- pages 11 - 18.

Part II . The STEPS
1 . The Body
2 . Food
3 . Work
4 . The Weather
5 . The Family
6 . A Building
7 . Fire
8 . The Country
9 . The Sea
10. Time 11 . The Machine
12 . Business
13 . Money
14 . Noise
15 . News
16 . Amusement
17 . Education
18 . Reading
19 . The Earth
20 . History 21 . Invention
22 . Feeling
23 . Art
24 . Trade
25 . Transport
26 . Peace
27 . Language
28 . Society
29 . Government
30 . Science

Part III. NOTES.
Notes for the Teacher and advanced learner - 40 pages
Notes Notes 1-5 6 - 10 11-20 21-30
Pictures
A and THE
IS
AND ON and OFF
SUBSTANCE
OF TIME WORDS
OPERATIONS
DIRECTIONS The MACHINE
VIEW
. PUT UP WITH
ACCOUNT
.
(e) extensions (s) specializations


Notes for Basic Step By Step

PART III . NOTES

For the Teacher and the advanced learner. - 40 pages.

Notes
1 . The Body
2 . Food
3 . Work
4 . The Weather
5 . The Family
6 . A Building
7 . Fire
8 . The Country
9 . The Sea
10 . Time

About Steps 11-20
11 . The Machine
12 . Business
13 . Money
14 . Noise
15 . News
16 . Amusement
17 . Education
18 . Reading
19 . The Earth
20 . History About Steps 21-30.
21 . Invention
22 . Feeling
23 . Art
24 . Trade
25 . Transport
26 . Peace
27 . Language
28 . Society
29 . Government
30 . Science

Pictures
A and THE
IS
AND

ON and OFF
SUBSTANCE
OF

TIME WORDS
OPERATIONS
DIRECTIONS

THE MACHINE
VIEW
PUT UP WITH
ACCOUNT
Part III . Notes

On the opposite page we may see the relation between the divisions of Part A of The ABC of Basic English and the first ten steps of the present book. On the left are listed ten points of the system, numbered in the order in which they were taken up in the The ABC ; on the right are groups of numbers representative of Steps 1--10. These numbers make clear which of the points listed on the text come into the Step in question. The numbers in black print are those of the divisions from which the chief teaching-points listed on the left come into the Step in question come ; those in normal print are representative of points of which examples are given, but which get fuller attention in some other Step ; and those between ( ) are for divisions from which a word or words has been taken but of which no general account is needed at this stage. Every step keeps as near as possible to the parallel division in the ABC account, only such changes being made as are necessary for the natural use of the material.
The purpose of these Notes is to give full details of the way in which the 100 words which are not names of things or qualities have been worked in ; and at the same time to make clear point by point, from another angle, the teaching value of the system as outlined in the general discussion at the front of the book.
Order of the ABC Basic Step by Step
1 .
. Operations : -- simple acts;
(Be), have will, may. 1 , 3, 5.
2 . Statements with not. (Use of do). 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, (8)
3 . Directions. 1, 2, 3, (8).
4 .
.
.
.
. How, when, and where :--
Forms with -ly ;
Again, over, far, forward, here, near, now, out still, them, there, together, well, little, much :
Almost, enough, even, only, quite, so, very. 1, 2, 3, 4, 8.
.
.
5 .
.
. Words representative of names :--
I-- we , he--they, you ;
this--these , that--those. 1, 3, 4 ,5, 7.
.
6 . Cries and orders. (Yes, no, and please.) (1), (3), 4, 5, 6, 7.
7 .
.
Complex words :-
Separate ; half-joined (with'-') ; joined. 4, 7, 8, 9.
8 .
.
.
. Joining words :-
And, or, but, that, because, if,though, white;
Before, after, fill;
How , when, where, why. (1), (3), (4), 8.
.
9 . Who and which (as joining words). (3), 4, 8, 9.
10. Questions :- Simple change of order. (1), (7), 8, 10.

At the end of Step 10, the learner has been given everything in Part A of the ABC, though the more complex rules for framing Questions are kept for the second stage. At the end of Step 20, he has been given the complete structure of the system, that is to say, everything but examples of the -er, -ing, and -ed endings in connection with the names of things, expansions of sense, special uses, and one or two other details important for giving a natural effect. On this higher-level material Steps 21-30 are based.
So the first 20 Steps give the young learner 500 of the names of things and qualities, with all the other 100 coming in by degrees (see p. 38) ; making 600 words in all. In this way he will be able to go forward to the last ten Steps, where most of the harder words are grouped in stories of greater range and interest together with such of the simpler words as did not come naturally into any of the earlier groups.
The first Step in word-learning is possible when we have the framework for making the simplest form of statement. In the ABC this framework is given by directions for putting is (are, was, were) between the names of things and qualities, with the use of a (an) and the, and, and or, and the addition of s to names of things when more than one thing is talked about.
The name of an act may then take the place of is, and the name of the ting acted on be put after it, with the name of a direction, if needed, after than, and so on.
In the first 10 Steps only the number 1 is needed. A suggestion for putting the numbers 1, 2, 3, before the learner, so that they may be no harder than one word, such as Radio, is given on page 51.
The 20 names of things are listed in two groups ; those which come most naturally under the heading, and those whose connection with it is looser, or which have no special connection but are used it the story for other reasons. In the first Step, for example, 15 parts of the body are named in the first group ; the words back, front, part, side are more general in their use, though all of them are very necessary for such statements as are made about the parts.
Qualities having opposites are listed with their opposites as one learning-unit ; and every Step of the first 20 gives us at least one example of words which may be taken together in this way.
At the foot of the page, other words which might come naturally into a group of 30 or more words under the heading of the Step are listed in sloping print -- first those whose root use has a necessary connection with the question, then expansions (marked (e)) and special uses (marked (s)) of the same sort, then words whose connection is looser, and last such expansions and special uses. Those that do not come into the learner's work at this stage, but they make clear how the field in question is covered in Basic. By seeing and hearing them even once, he will be helped when he comes to them later. With the first Step, for example, there are 15 other parts of the body, with which tail and horn would naturally be listed if we were talking about animals ; and in addition to breath and to back, nail, and side as special body names, we might have put such words as top (of the arm) or under (part), or hollow, which would be used in talking about the "shoulder" or the "sole" of the foot or the "arm-pit".
The teacher will keep in mind what was said on page 47 -- that all the little words which put the others in either their places will come in again frequently in later steps. If the sense of the statements is clear enough for the learning of the 25 words listed at the front of every Step, that is enough -- in all the early Steps. For most countries, the sense might equally well be given in the framework of the learner's natural language : " Ich habe (J'ai, Est mihi) a body," and so on. But that is not the quickest way of learning a language ; and by seeing the words, hearing them, saying them, and writing them, as part of a framework whose general sense and structure is clear to him, the learner will get them in his head without much trouble. Later, if some necessary word is not completely clear, it will be time enough to go over the framework itself in greater detail. This may best be done at the stage when special training is given in form-changes from examples.
At the start of the detailed notes on every Step are listed all the words used in it in addition to the 25 names of things and qualities, with the divisions of the ABC from which they are taken. Words which are given in "The First Step" of the ABC, or which are simply examples of material there covered, are put in the first line with no numbers after them. At the end are grouped any opposites which are to be noted here. Forms of words, and words which have come in before but are listed again as having another use, or as opposites, are but between ( ), because they are not on the same level as new words.
STEP 1 . The Body (Notes)
a , the, (is), and.
have, put, take, 1.
at, between, in, off, on, 3.
I, this, that, 5.
(my), Part II.
What things (20) and qualities (5) come best into our first learning group of 25 ? Clearly there is a strong argument for making a start with their body and its parts. The body and its parts are with us for pointing purposes wherever we go. The schoolroom may be without pens and ink, or the teacher may be in the open air where there are no doors and windows ; but all learners have bodies.
The only trouble about starting with the body is that I and my are needed for talking about its parts, and the other words of this sort are not necessary till a later stage. On the other hand, there are good reasons against starting with the forms of put, take, and have which would be forced on us by statements in the third person ; so common-sense gives us I and my, together with this and that for pointing purposes.
Take, put, and have are our first examples of 'names of operations'. The work which such words do has been made clear in the account of the chief sorts of word in Basic (Part I), as has the part taken by the names of directions, of which five come into the present Step. The chief uses of the opposites off and on, and their relation to one another, are covered in the pictures. A bird's-eye view of the 13 chief operation-words and of all the direction-words is given in the pictures after the Notes on Step 10, which will be of great use when enough examples of these two sorts of words have come in.
It will be noted that the parts of the body are not separate things which may be put or taken here and there quite in the same way as boxes or tables. We normally get a grip of what we take as part of the act of taking, in whatever direction we take it ; and we put what we have taken on the table, or in some other direction such as up or down. But for general purposes taking one's hand off one's head is the same sort of act as taking a box off a table.
Though the body-words are here put into simple statements, so that they may be talked about like other things, it is a good idea to get such words into the memory in the same way as in a quicker and quicker rhyme :
Eye, nose, ear ;
Mouth, tongue (here) ;
Head, face, chin ;
(Put) thumb (in) ;
Chest, finger, hand ;
Leg, knee (and)
Arm.
This and that, as will be noted, are used in two ways : 1 . by themselves, having the sense "The thing here (there) I am pointing to" ; 2 . as pointing words in front of the name of a thing.
My head," and so on. In English, the owner-forms such as My (your, his, and so on) are regularly used in connection with the parts of the body, where other languages might have the word for 'the' or no word at all.
"I have a nose." The use of have here may seem a little different from its use in such statements as "I have a book," but a natural expansion of this simplest use makes it possible for us to say that we 'have' anything of which we are in a wide sense the owners.
"The right side." Take note that names of qualities are used not only after is but before names of things (not after), and that when the is needed in addition to a quality-word, it comes before the quality-word. The same order is the rule when any of the other 'adjectives' in the Operations list (a, this, that, and so on, and the owner-forms of the 'pronouns', such as my) are used with the quality-words.
"A thumb and fingers." Take note 1. of the form for more than one 'fingers' ; and 2, of the fact that a(n) has no form for use before names in the form for more than one, and that these, when they have no need of the or some other pointing-word, are used by themselves. -- The thumb is sometimes looked on as one of the fingers, so that we may say "I have 10 fingers," but frequently, as here, it is named as a separate thing.
"Fingers on my hand." The simplest picture of on is that of something resting on top of another thing, but anything which is supported by or fixed to another is on it, even when what is on anything is a part of it.
Foot and tooth, though they might come in here, have been kept till a later stage because they are among the small number of words whose forms for more than one are not made by the addition of ' s .' See the Note at the end of Step 5.
Opposites : this -- that , off -- on , put -- take.
Back to Body. Hint : swap to that page, do not use link.
Step 2 . FOOD (Notes)
some.
go , may , will , 1.
not , 2.
from , of , to , with , 3.
here , there , 4.
(it) , 5.
or , 8.
A important point to be noted here is that we do not put a before the names of substances, such as food, soup, bread, etc., because they are not, like things such as head, meal, basin and so on, looked on as units, complete in themselves (which is the idea given by a). When we are talking of a substance in a general way, we put nothing in front of it ("Cake is sweet") ; when we are talking of an amount of it which is present at the time, we commonly, though not necessarily, put in some word giving this idea of 'an amount of' ("Some food is on the table"). When the is used before the names of substances it has the sense of "the amount of butter, etc., here present or in question.
The picture opposite will be of help in making clear this division of things into 'things' in the narrower sense of 'units', and 'substances' (of which such 'things' are made). It will be seen from the picture that when the name of a substance has a quality-word in front of it, it is made clear that what we are talking of is 'a sort of' cloth etc. ("a cloth of good quality"), we do make use of a and that in that sense the name of a substance may even be used in the form for more than one ("different cloths"). But this is a point which it will be better not to give the learner till a later stage.
Have . From these examples we may see the development from having of food on our plates to the having of it (by the process of taking it into our stomachs) as part of ourselves.
With . In its root use, as in "I have some bread with it," with is simply a sign that the things joined by it are together. But in the statement, "I put the meat in my mouth with the fork," the fork not only goes into the mouth with the meat, but is the instrument by which it is put there. This gives a clear example of the way in which with, from having the general sense of connection in space or time, comes in addition to be used for the connection between an act and its instrument.
It . The form which may take the place of the name of a thing or animal (not a person) which is being talked about. For the present, like any name of a thing, it will be used only before is (will or may) or after the names of operations or directions.
"I take the spoon . . . and put . . . ." In a statement in which the same person is said to do two or more acts, it is not necessary for the doer to be named with every act.
May . has the general sense of "It is possible;" but, as noted in the ABC, a thing is possible in two ways. In the first, some person makes it possible (by giving power or authority) ; in the second, general conditions do so. The examples of may given here are of the first of these users.
Because will and may are only helping words, the name of some act necessarily comes after them.
"I may not have." "The taste of salt is not bitter." Take note that not-statements using may or be (is) are made by simply putting not straight after these words.
"Cake and cheese." The words cake and cheese are used not only for the 'pictured' things to which we give these names, but in addition for the substances of which these things are made. Take note that some is frequently not put in where it is clear without it that we are taking of "a certain amount of" whatever is in question.
"An orange ." An is used in place of a before words starting with the letters a, e, i, and o ; and with u when it has an open sound, as in umbrella, uncommon, and so on.
Of , which is used like the name of a direction, seems at first to have little connection with space. It is, however, a development from off. The skin off the orange is the skin of the orange. That which is taken off was necessarily at one time on, and so is a part of, or, more generally, the property of, the thing from which it was taken. This development is clearly pictured on the opposite page and over.
Opposites : from -- to , here -- there.
Back to Food

PEACE

Basic Step By Step

Part II.
1 . The Body
2 . Food
3 . Work
4 . The Weather
5 . The Family
6 . A Building
7 . Fire
8 . The Country
9 . The Sea
10. Time 11. The Machine
12. Business
13. Money
14. Noise
15. News
16. Amusement
17. Education
18. Reading
19. The Earth
20. History 21 . Invention
22 . Feeling -
23 . Art
24 . Trade
25 . Transport
26 . Peace
27 . Language
28 . Society
29 . Government
30 . Science
Notes for the Teacher -- 40 pages
(e) extensions (s) specializations
26 . PEACE

- - - Things - - - Qualities
harmony
(peace)
war


army
attack
attempt
church
connection
death
destruction
fight
flag
gun
hate
hospital
lead
relation
religion
waste
wound living - dead
military
violent
wrong



Other Words :
friend , government , love , order
agreement (e) ;
cause (e).
26 .


Even in very early times, when it was almost as common for two countries to have a war as for two men to have a fight there were some who had the feeling that this condition was not right. The love of peace has been a part of the teaching of almost every great religion, and it is clear from this that the men of the past were conscious of the value of working in harmony with one another.
But till only a short time back, almost no one, not even those who had belief in religion, had any hope that we would ever be able to put an end to war, and no serious attempt was made to take steps against it. One reason was that war seemed to be a necessary outcome of the competition between countries. Though every war was clearly bad for one side, it seemed to be good for the other ; and it did not seem possible that man would ever give up this violent way of getting profit. So even those who saw that war was bad had the opinion that it was necessary, and that they would have to put up with it. And in the eyes of most men it seemed not only necessary but natural, and their great hope was to see their country痴 flag waving over other countries.
But there has been a great change in the relation of war to trade, and so in the feeling about war. In present conditions no country gets any profit from the use of arms, though when a war has been started hate and fear will keep it going. The connection between the trade of all countries is so complex that damage to one is damage to all, and the loss to a country in this way is much greater than anything it may have a hope of getting by making an attack on another. Dead men and burned towns are only a small part of the price of war today. The had conditions which come after it seem to have no end, and it is not possible for anyone who has had experience of them not to see that the old view of war as good business is quite wrong.
Another point we have to take into account is that the invention of new machines for the destruction of men has made the fear of war greater than it has ever been before. In a present-day war, violent death comes not to hundreds but to thousands, and not only to those in the army, but to persons taking no part in the fight. No one in a country which is at war is safe, even in a hospital or a church. With the help of these new inventions the destruction of every building and every living thing in a town would be quite possible. And in comparison with the forms of death which are the work of these latest military instruments, a wound from a gun gives little pain. Not only lead and steel, hut even crueller instruments of destruction, are now used in war.
All these things have made men conscious that wax is not only bad, but completely against reason. War has at all times been a shocking waste of time. of money, and of men. It is now clearly seen to be so, and that gives the greatest hope for peace which there has ever been in history.

Questions
1 . What has been part of the teaching of every great religion?
2 . What do we see from this?
3 . Why did men in the past have no hope that there would ever be an end to war?
4 . What has been the cause of a new feeling about war?
5 . What keeps a war going when it has been started
6 . Why does no country now get any profit from the use of army?
7 . What has made war more feared today than ever before
8 . What do these new inventions make possible?
9 . Give the names of two metals which are used for making instruments of war.
10. Why have men a better hope for peace now than they have ever had before?

Answers
1 . The love of peace.
2 . We see that the men of the past were conscious of the value of living in harmony with one another.
3 . Because war seemed to be a necessary outcome of the competition between countries.
4 . The change in he relation of war to trade.
5 . Hate and fear.
6 . Because the connection between the trade of all countries is so complex that damage to one is damage to all.
7 . The invention of new machines for the destruction of men.
8 . The destruction of every building and every living thing in a town.
9 . Steel and lead.
10. Because it is now clearly seen that war is a waste of time, of money, and of men.
27 . LANGUAGE

- - - Things - - - Qualities
discussion
fiction
(language)
list
prose
talk
verse






error
fact
idea
mind
order
purpose
rhythm
rule
sign
statement
tendency
thought
trick true - false
material
natural
regular



Other Words :
answer, argument, cry, letter, name,
question, reading, voice, word, writing ;
observation (e), sense (e)
ear, education, mouth, society, song, sound;
sign (s).
27 . LANGUAGE


The chief purpose of language is the exchange of thought or feeling. Every Word which a man says is a sign to other men of something which is in his mind. There are other signs by which he may give them an idea of his thoughts or feelings. He may give cries, make motions with his hands or body, or make pictures ; and when these things are done for the purpose of giving knowledge to others, they may do the work of language. But the language of words is the most important form of language, because cries and motions and pictures, though they are sometimes used as signs, may at other times have a different purpose.
We give the name  word  to two things : first, to any sound of the voice which has been given a separate sense ; and second, to the letters in writing which are the sign of such a sound. Talk came before writing, and men were saying words before they had any idea of how to put them on paper or any other material substance.
A language is not only a list of words. It is, in addition, a number of fixed ways of putting them together. One important rule in every language is the rule about the order of the words. In English, if we say "You have come," putting ' you ' before ' have,' the words have not the same sense as if we say 滴ave you come ?", putting ' you ' after ' have.' The first is a statement and the second is a question. And if we say " Have come you," we are saying something which has no sense. It is very important to get the trick of putting the words in the right order when we are learning a new language.
Some words have more than one sense. In a discussion with others it is best to be certain that we are all giving the same sense to the same words.
Any event or thing of which we have certain knowledge is a fact, and when we put that knowledge in a statement we make a true statement. When we are talking or writing about facts our purpose normally is to say what is true. We may make an error, but we do not make false statements consciously.
But there is a sort of writing which has not the purpose of recording facts, but only that of giving pleasure or moving our feelings. When this sort of writing has the form of a story, the story is not necessarily true. We give it the name of ' fiction ', because a fiction is an invention of the mind. Fiction is not true, but we do not say that it is false, because the writer of it is not attempting to make any statement about facts.
The first fiction was probably in the form of verse. We see in very small boys and girls the natural tendency to make songs about anything which is pleasing to them. Early man had this same tendency. He made his stories different from common talk by giving them a different rhythm. This was the start of the process which gave us verse and prose as separate forms, though before the invention of writing there was no verse or prose, there was only song and talk. Not all verse at the present time has a regular rhythm, but the rhythm is more marked than it is in prose.

Questions
1 . What is the chief purpose of language?
2 . In what different ways may a man give knowledge of his thoughts and feelings to other men?
3 . To what two things is the name ' word ' given?
4 . What is an important rule in any language?
5 . What two earlier headings are the names of two sorts of writing about facts?
6 . What name do we give to an exchange of opinions?
7 . Why do we not say of fiction that it is true or false?
8 . What was probably the first form of fiction?
9 . What tendency do small boys and girls have in common with early man?
10. What is one way in which verse is different from prose?

Answers
1 . The exchange of thought or feeling.
2 . By saying words, by giving cries, and by making motions or pictures.
3 . To any sound of the voice which has been given a separate sense, and to the letters in writing which are the sign of such a sound.
4 . The rule about the order of the words,
5 . News and History.
6 . A discussion.
7 . Because it is not attempting to make any statement about facts.
8 . Verse.
9 . The tendency to make songs about anything which is pleasing to them.
10. Verse has a more marked rhythm than prose.
28 . SOCIETY

- - - Things - - - Qualities
crime
property
punishment
(society)






act
adjustment
ant
bee
behaviour
development
example
group
offer
organization
prison
respect
reward
self
system
unit wise - foolish
private - public
free



Other Words :
business, family, friend, government, nation, trade;
authority (e), church (e), company (e), industry (e), position (s), society (s);
authority, hospital, library, person, school
meeting (s) and (e), society (e).
28 . SOCIETY

The early history of man on earth is the history of the growth of society. Men have a natural impulse to take care of their young, and we have no record of a time when they were not living in families. The family is the unit on which society is based; but it is a long way from this first simple group to the system of society which we have today, and the process of development took a long time.
The first groups wider than the family may have been formed for helping one another in times of danger, or they may have come simply from the natural impulse to get together. But when men had the experience of a united existence, its value was made clear to them. They saw that by keeping together they were safer from animals and other dangers, and that living in a group made possible new and better ways of getting food and doing work. Later, different persons came to be expert at different sorts of work, and so society slowly became the complex organization which it is now.
Men did not get all this good from society without giving something in exchange. A person living with other persons is not completely free. He may not do everything which is pleasing to him, because frequently an act which is pleasing to one does damage to others. The impulses of the self sometimes have a tendency to the destruction of the group, and so an adjustment of the self to society is necessary.
There are some persons who have naturally a kind feeling for all men, and who are ready to make an offer of help whenever they see anyone in need of it. Others are wise enough to be conscious of the value of peace and order, and to see that respect for society is the way to a better existence for themselves. Adjustment to society is not hard for persons like these. But there are some foolish persons who have no thought for others and no true knowledge of what is good for themselves, and it is necessary to keep such persons from acting against society. This is the purpose of public punishment.
An act which is clearly against society is a crime, and the person who does such an act is taken before a judge and given a punishment. He may be put in a prison, or if the crime is very serious, the punishment may even be death. In most countries it is a crime to take, or to do damage to, another person痴 property.
An act may be wrong without being a crime. Any sort of cruel behaviour is wrong, but only those forms of it which are seen to be a danger to society are put on the list of crimes. But though there is no fixed punishment for certain sorts of wrong behaviour, fear of public opinion keeps a number of men from doing wrong
The organization of society among men is not the only example of such a thing Other animals have societies, and some of them, like the ant and the bee, have very complex ones. But in the societies of insects, organization has gone much farther than in the society of man. Every ant and every bee is living only for the group and has no private existence. It does nothing but the work of the group. and seems more like a part of a machine than a living thing. The only reward which it has is the necessary food and a safe place for sleep, and even these are only given to it while it is a good worker.

Questions
1 . What was the first group in the history of society?
2 . What is one reason which men may have had for forming greater groups?
3 . What was the value of a united existence?
4 . Why may a person living in society not do everything which is pleasing to him?
5 . Why is it necessary to make an adjustment or the self to society?
6 . What is the purpose of public Punishment?
7 . What name is given to an act against society?
8 . What is done to a person who is responsible for a crime?
9 . What sometimes keeps men from doing wrong acts when there is no fixed Punishment for them?
10. With what insects has the organisation of society gone farther than with man?

Answers
1 . The family
2 . The need for help in times of danger.
3 . It kept men safer from animals and other dangers, and made possible new and better ways of getting food and doing work.
4 . Because frequently an act Which is pleasing to one does damage to others.
5 . Because the impulses of the self sometimes have a tendency to the destruction of the group.
6 . To keep foolish persons from acting against society.
7 . A crime.
8 . He is taken before a judge and given punishment.
9 . Fear of public opinion.
10. Ants and bees.
29 . GOVERNMENT

- - - Things - - - Qualities
authority
(government)
law
nation
tax



agreement
approval
argument
committee
control
decision
detail
division
force
protest
representative
secretary
selection
(sex)
trouble male - female
equal
political
responsible




Other Words :
power (e)
country, group, history, order, organization, society, system
order (e).
29 . GOVERNMENT

Wherever there is society there is government, but all society is not under one government. The earth has still a great number of separate governments. A division of the earth which has a separate government is a political division, and if it Is a country we give it the name nation.
A very simple form of government is the rule of one person who has complete authority, and in early times such governments were common. But today most political organizations are very much more complex than that.
We give the name  government  not only to the system of rule which a nation or other political unit has, but to the persons who have control of it. So we say that the government of a country makes a law for those living in it, or makes an agreement with another country.
Laws and agreements are not the only work of a government. It keeps order in the country; it takes care of education and trade ; it makes war and peace.
Money is necessary for all this work, and every person living in a country makes payments to the government in one way or another. Any payment which is ordered by the government is a tax.
There are different sorts of taxes. One sort of tax is taken every year from persons who have land, another is put on goods coming into the country.
If any law or tax is very much against the desire of the public, a protest may be made to the government. Sometimes the force of public opinion is so strong that a committee is formed for the purpose of going into the question. A committee has a secretary who keeps the records of its meetings.
In most countries today the selection of the government, or of a part of it, is in the hands of the public. In some countries the selection is made by all persons, male and female, who are old enough : a man and a woman have equal power in the business of political selection. But in others there is a division based on (sex). The British government is a representative of the first sort of political system.
Every person who gets a place in the government by this selection, is the representative of a number of other persons who have given him their approval. Before the government makes a decision about anything, all the representatives have a chance of giving their opinions, and there is frequently much argument, in the process of which every detail of the question is made dear.
In the early days of political organization, men had no such control over their government. Those who were strong made themselves rulers, and if their rule was cruel or unwise, the only way of getting a change was by the use of force. This condition was responsible for much trouble. If those who were against the government were feeble, they were crushed, and if they were strong there was sometimes a long and bitter fight.
For a long time representative government seemed to be the only way out of these dangers. But today, in some countries where the workers or the military have taken control, new forms of government have come into existence, and the value of the representative system is the great question of the future.

Questions
1 . What sort of division is a part of the earth which has a separate government?
2 . What name do we give to such a division when it is a Country
3 . What two senses has the word 堵overnment"?
4 . What work does a government do?
5 . What are taxes?
6 . Why are they necessary?
7 . What may be done when a law or tax is very much against the desire of the public?
8 . Give one way in which the system of government selection is different in different countries.
9 . What is a person who gets a place in the government by public selection?
10. When do the representatives have a chance of giving their opinions?

Answers
1 . A political division.
2 . A nation.
3 . Government is the name given to the system by which a nation or other political unit is ruled, and to the persons who are in control of it.
4 . It makes laws and agreements : it keeps order ; it takes care of education and trade ; it makes war and peace.
5 . Taxes are payments (to the government) ordered by the government.
6 . Because money is necessary for the work of government.
7 . A protest may be made to the government.
8 . In some countries the selection is made by all persons, male and female, who are old enough but in others there is a division based on (sex).
9 . The representative of a number of other persons who have given him their approval.
10 . Before the government makes a decision.
30 . SCIENCE

- - - Things - - - Qualities
disease
(science)
theory








apparatus
blood
cause
degree
digestion
discovery
effect
expansion
heat
limit
liquid
memory
note
observation
operation
scale
test general - special
boiling
chemical
medical




Other Words :
law (e), mass (e), order (e) ;
behaviour, change, comparison, event, example, experience,
form, instrument, knowledge, measure, motion, number, process,
rule, reaction, relation, sense, space, structure, system, tendency ;
property (e), question (e), range (e), structure (e).
30 . SCIENCE

In the time before The Greeks there was no science in the West. Men had knowledge of a number of things, but they had little idea of how to put their knowledge in order, and little impulse to make it wider and deeper for the general purpose of getting more knowledge. But the Greeks had a love for knowledge itself. They put questions to themselves about everything. and made an attempt to put the answers together and see the connections between them. This was the birth of science, which is The conscious attempt to give men greater and clearer knowledge.
The Greeks made the discovery that questions might be grouped in relation to the things They were about. These groups are the special sciences, and are given special names, such as chemical science, physical science, and medical science. They are all branches of general science.
A number of these special sciences were given their start by the Greeks. In the field of medical science one man made the important observation That the blood in our bodies was in some way controlled by the heart. Other medical experts got knowledge of The process of digestion by cutting open the stomachs of dead animals. Without such knowledge of the body痴 normal processes, medical science would have no power over disease.
From the Greeks' time there has been a great development in The art of discovery. Today, if the simple observation of a thing does not give us the desired knowledge about it, we make a test. Very complex forms of apparatus are needed for some of These tests, and a note is made of every detail of the process. The knowledge of what tests are of use, and how They may be made, is possibly the chief thing which makes the science of our day different from That of the Greeks.
When a man has made a number of tests, he may put forward a theory about the relation between the events which he has seen. But sometimes different theories may be based on the same facts, and the only way of seeing which is the true one is by making more tests.
One of the important discoveries of physical science is the fact That when a bit of metal is warm its size is greater than when it is cold. The general statement of this fact has the form : Heat is the cause of expansion in metals. When enough heat is given to a liquid, the liquid is put in violent motion. It is Then said to be boiling. The amount of heat which is necessary for this effect may be measured on a scale, and the degree at which it takes place is said to be the boiling-point of the liquid.
Science is interested not only in bodies. but in minds. The operation of heat is a very different thing from the operation of memory, but these two questions are equally representative of the work of science. There seems to be no limit to its range.

Questions
1 . What is science?
2 . Give the names of three special sciences.
3 . What are all these sciences branches of?
4 . What knowledge was got by cutting open the stomachs of dead animals?
S . Why do men of science make tests?
6 . What is needed for some of these tests?
7 . What may be the outcome of a number of tests?
8 . What is the general form of the statement that when a bit of metal is warm it is greater than when it is cold?
9 . How is heat measured?
10. What name is given to the degree of heat at which a liquid is put in motion?

Answers
1 . The conscious attempt to give men greater and clearer knowledge.
2 . Chemical science, physical science, medical science.
3 . General science.
4 . A knowledge of the process of digestion.
5 . For the purpose of getting knowledge which simple observation will not give.
6 . Very complex forms of apparatus.
7 . A theory about the relation between the events seen in them.
8 . Heat is the cause of expansion in metals.
9 . On a scale.
10 . The boiling-point of the liquid.

INVENTION

21 . INVENTION

From the earliest times men have been seeing new uses for the substances which the earth gives them, and making new sorts of things for work or pleasure. Every such thing is an invention. Not only the great machines of our time, but things like a knife and a screw and a spring are inventions. The burning of wax for light was no less an invention than electric light. though it was not such a good one.
These early inventions do not seem as surprising as those which are nearer to us, but without their help we would not have had the later ones. Without the spring the invention of the watch would not have been possible, and so on. One of the most important of the older inventions was glass. To this delicate substance, which at the start was used only for making beautiful things, we are in debt for a great part of our present knowledge.
Men early got the knowledge that when a ray of light went through glass, the direction in which it went into the substance sometimes made an angle with the direction in which it came out, and that with a bit of glass which was thin at the edges and thick in the middle, rays might be bent in such a way that they came together at one point. But it was not till much later that they got a way of taking the measure of these angles, and saw clearly what surprising uses this quality of glass might have. Able men were were hot slow in profiting by this knowledge. One of the first of the new inventions was an instrument for getting a better view of things which are a great distance away, such as the moon and stars Almost at the same time another instrument was made for seeing very small things clearly. It will readily be seen how important these inventions were for making additions to our knowledge.
Another invention which was based on the knowledge of light rays was the camera. The little bit of glass at the front sends the rays to the right points on the plate at the back.
The bulb which is part of some cameras is another invention. When it is crushed in the hand, it sends a current of air through a pipe to a delicate spring which is in the box. When this spring is moved, the light is let in through the glass. The bulb is hollow like the pipe. If it was solid, it would have no air in it. When there is a crack in the bulb, it will not do the necessary work, because the air gets out and does not go through the pipe.
Another sort of bulb is the glass electric light bulb. In these electric bulbs we may see the delicate wire through which the electric current goes.
Electric machines are now taking the place of some which are worked by steam, but steam is still one of the most valued servants of man. One of the most Important inventions based on the use of steam is the steamboat. One of the less Important is the steam whistle.
The plane which is used to make wood smooth is one of the oldest inventions. The airplane in which we may take a flight through the air is one of the newest and most surprising.
It is sometimes said that chance has given us some of the most important Inventions, but without the help of experience chance would have done little for us.
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1 . See Notes on this Step.


Questions
1 . What is an invention?
2 . What were five early inventions?
3 . What quality of glass made possible the invention of instruments for seeing very small things and things a great distance away?
4 . For what are these instruments important?
5 . What does the bulb of a camera do when it is crushed in the hand?
6 . Why is it hollow?
7 . Give an example of another sort of bulb.
8 . What is inside an electric bulb.
9 . What two sorts of power are named here as used for working machines?
10. What is the use of a plane?

Answers
1 . Any new sort of thing which is made by man.
2 . Knives, Screws. springs. wax-lights, and glass.
3 . The quality of getting rays of light bent when they go through it.
4 . For making additions to our knowledge.
5 . It sends a current of air to a delicate spring which is in the box.
6 . Because if it was solid it Would have no air in it.
7 . An electric-light bulb.
8 . A delicate wire Through which the electric current goes.
9 . Electric (current) and steam.
10. A plane is used for making wood smooth.



22 . FEELING


Fear sometimes makes us do very surprising things. One night the nerve of one of my teeth was giving me a feeling of pain, and it was certain that I would not be able to go to sleep till the pain was stopped. But I had nothing in the house which would be of use, and the only way of getting anything was by going to the house of a friend. The distance was not long, but the road went through a wood, and there was a story going about that a strange animal with a great horn had been seen there some days earlier.
I had no belief that there was such an annual, and no doubt that I would be quite safe in the wood, so I made a start without any fear. But before I had gone very far a strange sound came to my ears It was not like the normal cry of any animal of which I had had experience, and it sent a wave of fear through me. My reason was quite certain that there was no danger, but I was not as happy as I had been before I even had an impulse to go back, but shame and the hope of stopping the pain in my tooth kept me from doing so, though not from having a feeling of regret that I had come.
I went forward more quickly, with every sense awake. The touch of an insect on my face was enough to make my blood go cold. Suddenly a second cry came, much nearer than the first. This time my reaction was to make a complete stop. My heart seemed to come into my throat and my feet to be fixed to the earth. A minute later I was going back as quickly as my legs would take me.
The wood was dark, and after only two or three steps I put my foot into a hole. I was unable to keep my balance, and I came down on my face. The shock of the fall sent all the breath out of my body, and my senses went from me for a time.
When I was conscious again, my first feeling was a pain in my head. Then my fear came back and I got on my feet. But before I had taken a step, a sound came which sent all fear from me. It was the strange sound again, but this time it was clearly over my head, and there was no doubt that it was the cry of a night bird.
With a look of disgust at my trousers covered with wet earth, I went on again. I was angry because I had not had more sense, but when I got to the house of my friend, and was giving an account of my experience in comfort before a bright fire, amusement took the place of my bad humour. Everyone took a great interest In my story, and when they were certain that no serious damage had been done by my fall, they had a good laugh about it.

Questions
1 . What did the man in this story go to the house of his friend for?
2 . What was said to have been seen in the wood?
3 . Why did he have no fear at the start?
4 . Why did the sound which came to his ears put fear into him?
5 . What kept him from going back
6 . What made his blood go cold?
7 . What was his reaction to the second cry?
8 . Why did he have a fall when he put his foot into a hole.
9 . What was his feeling when he saw his dirty trousers
10. What were the feelings of has friends when he gave them an account of his experience?

Answers
1 . Something for stopping the pain in (the nerve of) his tooth.
2 . A strange animal With a great horn.
3 . Because he had no belief that there was such an animal.
4 . Because it was not like the normal cry of any animal of which he had had experience.
5 . Shame and the hope of stopping the pain in his tooth.
6 . The touch of an insect on his face.
7 . He made a complete stop.
8 . Because he was unable to keep his balance.
9 . Disgust.
10. Interest and amusement.





23 . ART

The art of early man was rooted in his physical needs. The first picture was probably a copy of the form of some animal necessary for food, and was made with chalk or paint on the rough stone wall of a hole in the side of a mountain. Such pictures were probably made, not only for pleasure, but because men had the belief that in some way these copies made the animals come when they were needed. Even the first design which was cut on a bit of metal, or painted on a cup or other vessel, was almost certainly not only an ornament, but an instrument for keeping the owner of it safe from danger, or helping him in some other way.
But the strange impulse to make copies of things which were needed for existence was the start of a new and very important experience. With it came the pleasure in making and doing beautiful things which has made the growth of art possible.
At the start, all the forms which were used by painters and designers in their work were copies of the forms which they saw in things about them, but it is surprising how early they put them together in new ways. They saw very quickly that even simple forms, such as the square and the circle, might be joined in a great number of complex designs to make pictures which were not copies of anything. The curve of a leaf might give the suggestion for a design which was not at all like leaves, but only a number of forms and colours put together in a way which was pleasing to the eye.
The earliest painting was done with only one or two colours. Red, black, and white were very common, because they were the colours of common substances which might be used as paints. The knowledge of more uncommon paints, and of the way to get them mixed so that they made new colours, did not come till later.
Metal-work was one of the earliest of the arts. The metals which have been most used in art are gold, silver, copper, and copper mixed with another metal to make it harder. The brass of which kettles and curtain rods are made, and which we keep bright with polish, is another mixed metal with copper in it, but the one used in art is different. It is brown, not yellow like brass.
The growth of the knowledge of building gave man a new sort of art, and at the same time gave a new interest to some of the other arts. Men made the lines of their structures beautiful, and the flat walls gave a chance for paintings and for designs in stone or wood. It was not till quite late in history that a picture was commonly something in a frame which might be put on a hook on a wall and moved from place to place. Before that it was a part of a building. The art of building has given us a number of beautiful forms. One of the most beautiful is the arch, which has been used most in the buildings of Europe.
From the start men have all the time been learning new processes of art. One very important invention was that of painting on canvas with paints mixed with oil. But that is only one of a great number of such inventions, not only in painting, but in all the other arts which make use of physical substances.
We sometimes give the name art, not only to the great arts, but to any expert way of doing or making anything. So we may say that cutting a jewel is an art, or that there is an art of cooking.

Questions
1 . Where were the earliest pictures made and with what substances
2 . What were they probably copies of?
3 . Why?
4 . Give examples of simple forms winch were early used for making complex designs.
5 . How may natural forms, like the form of a leaf, have been responsible for a new sort of picture?
6 . What were the commonest colours used in early paintings?
7 . What metals have been most used in the history of art?
8 . Why did the art of building give a new interest to the other arts?
9 . What was one of the most important inventions in the art of painting?
10. Give two examples of processes which are said to be arts in the second sense of the word.

Answers
1 . On the rough stone walls of holes in the mountains, with chalk or paint.
2 . The forms of animals necessary for food.
3 . Because early man had the belief that these copies made the animals come when they were needed.
4 . The square and the circle.
5 . They may have given suggestions for designs which were not copies of anything.
6 . Red, black, and white.
7 . Gold, silver, copper, and copper mixed with another metal.
8 . Because the walls gave a chance for paintings and designs in stone or wood.
9 . The invention of painting on canvas with paints mixed with oil.
10. Cutting a jewel and cooking.




24 . TRADE

All business is based on trade, which is the exchange of goods. The simplest form of trade is the exchange of one sort of produce for another, but this sort of trade is not very common at the present time. In some parts of the earth men still give the skins of animals and other things it exchange for food, or cloth, or bright ornaments for their bodies but most countries make use of an instrument of exchange, that is, of money. The invention of money made trade a very much more complex thing.
Most countries have more than enough of some things for their needs, and not enough of others. In one part of the earth there may be great fields of rice for food but no iron for making machines. In another there may be a great amount of tin for cooking-vessels, but no leather for boots and shoes. So almost every country sends goods to other countries, and with the money which it gets in exchange for them, it makes payment for the goods Which other countries send to it. In this way distribution is made of the things of the earth.
In every great country today men and women are dependent on the industry of persons in other lands for some of the things most commonly used. If you are in England, your dress may be of silk which has been made by a small worm in China, or your shirt of cotton which has come from the cotton fields of India. You may keep papers together with a band of an elastic substance taken from a plant in South America, or keep your accounts on paper produced in Canada. You may have for your morning meal, on a tray from Japan, oranges which a shod time before were hanging on the trees in South Africa. If you are in Belgium, the coal you put on your fires may have come from a mine in Wales, and if you are in the United States, the wine which you have at a meal is probably the produce of France or Spain or Italy.
Almost all the produce of the earth has some use. A nut, or the root of a plant, or a small fish, may give substances which are most important to man. So even a country which is not very fertile, and has no mines of metal, may be the producer of something for which other countries will give money.
When the produce of one country is like that of another, there is competition between them for trade with other countries. Linen was at one time one of the chief things produced by Europe, but when cotton came into the markets of the West It took the place of linen, because it was cheaper and better for some uses, and the linen trade is now very small.
We are in debt to trade for a great Increase in the comforts of existence. One of the things which it has given us, which Is sometimes overlooked, is insurance. The first form of insurance was against the loss of goods on the sea, and it is said to have had its start among the traders of Phoenicia.

Questions
1 . What is the simplest form of trade ?
2 . What effect did the invention of money have on trade?
3 . What substances are used for making : (a) machines (b) cooking-vessels (c) boots and shoes
4 . How is money used in trade between countries?
5 . What is one outcome of trade between countries?
6 . Give the names of two substances used for clothing which England gets from other countries with the names of the countries from which they come.
7 . What do we get iron mines?
8 . What takes place between two countries when the produce of one is like that of the other
9 . What trade has been made less important by the coming of cotton into the markets of the West
10. Give the name of one thing for which we are in debt to trade.

Answers
1 . The exchange of one sort of produce for another.
2 . It made trade more complex.
3 . (a) Iron ; (b) tin ; (c) leather.
4 . A country sends goods to others and gets money in exchange for them ; then with that money it makes payment for goods which other countries send to it.
5 . A distribution of the things of the earth.
6 . Silk from China and cotton from India.
7 . Coal and metals.
8 . Competition.
9 . The linen trade.
10. Insurance.




25 . TRANSPORT


The transport of men and things over great distances in a very short time is common thing in our day. But this ha been made possible only by invention little more than a hundred years old. Not till 1801 was an engine used for sending a ship through the water, and this was quite a long time before the first train made its first journey. Up to then the quickest way of going from place to place on land was on horseback, and journey over the sea were made in sailing-ships These sorts of transport seem very slow to us now, in comparison with the rate of a train or a steamship. But they were much quicker and better ways of getting over the earth than men had had in earlier times.
The invention of the wheel was a great event in the history of transport. Before that, animals took men and things on their backs, but wheels gave an animal the power of moving a much greater weight. It may readily be seen how important this was for trade.
When man had made his first rough cart, he was on the way to the invention of the carriage, in which journeys Were commonly made before the coming of the train. The design of the carriage went on getting better and better. The addition of a brake for keeping it from rolling down slope, and of springs for making the motion less rough, were great comforts.
In most countries, carriages of great weight, pulled by four or even more horses, were used for going long distances A change of horses was made at different stopping-places on the road, and in this way a quicker journey was possible Experts were needed for driving Such carriages, and if the condition of the roads was bad this was very hard work. Some times, if it was necessary to get across a river and there was no bridge, the driver made his horses go through the water. Journeys in those days were frequently full of strange experiences.
But today even a long journey is very simple. A man goes to the station, gets ticket, and takes a seat in the waiting train. His bags and boxes are put in the railway carriage by a porter, and at a fixed time the train goes. Though the rate of motion is very great, the train goes smoothly, and he may have a sleep or do some reading while it is quickly taking him to the end his journey.
The two parallel rails of metal which are the road for the wheels of a train go through rough fields and across mountains where a carriage and horses would be unable to go. The power of the engine takes the train up long slopes at almost the same rate as over country which is on a level. There are no stops for rest or food, or because the roads are bad.
At present the only form of transport quicker than the train is the airplane. This the newest and quickest form of transport which we have. It does not seem possible now that anything will ever be quicker, but the history of transport has not come to an end, and it may still have some surprises for us.

Questions
1 . What makes the old forms of transport seem slow to us?
2 . What invention made a great change to transport
3 . Why was this invention important for trade
4 . By what two additions were carriages given greater comfort?
5 . What was done to make journeys by carriage quicker?
6 . Where do you go to get on a train, and what is it necessary to do before you take your seat?
7 . Who puts the bags and boxes in the carriage
8 . What sort of road is necessary for the wheels of a train?
9 . What power puts a train in motion
10. What is the quickest form of transport?

Answers
1 . The rate of trains and steamships.
2 . The wheel.
3 . Because wheels gave an animal the power of moving a much greater weight.
4 . By the addition of a brake for keeping the carriage from rolling down slopes, and of springs for making the motion less rough.
5 . A change of horses was made at different stopping-places on the road.
6 . To the station it is necessary to get ticket.
7 . A porter.
8 . Two parallel rails of metal.
9 . The power of the engine.
10. The airplane.

AMUSEMENT

16 . AMUSEMENT

Yesterday my friend and I saw something which gave us great amusement. We were in the garden with a ball when a man came through the street with a music-box, and on the top of it was a small monkey. The monkey had on red trousers and a blue shirt. On its neck was a collar, and on this was a chain.
When the man was opposite the house he made a stop. Some boys and girls were with him, and my friend and I got up on the rail at the front of the house, where we saw everything over their heads.
The man took the chain off the collar and the monkey got down with a jump and went to the hand-part of the music box and gave it a turn. After that the man took it, and while he made the music the monkey got up on the box again and took the hat of the man and put it on its head. That made us all give a laugh, because the hat came down over the face of the monkey almost of its chin. After that the monkey did some other things which gave the boys and girls much amusement.
After a short time, the man gave a cup to the monkey, and it came and put it out to everyone for money. But when it went near to one boy, he put out his hand and gave the tail of the monkey a twist. That was cruel, and my friend, who is very kind, gave a cry, and said 撤lease don稚 do that !" The face of the boy got very red, and he let the tail go. The monkey went quickly to the man, who took it in his arms and said kind words to it, till it seemed happy again. Love makes animals happy.
My friend is very sad when he sees an animal sad or in pain. Boys and girls are sometimes cruel to animals because they do not see that what they do gives them pain. If a man gives a horse blows with a whip, we all see that that is cruel. But if you have a dog and keep it on a chain and do not ever let it have a run, or if you give it so much food that ii gets fat and slow, that is almost as cruel, though it may seem kind.
When we gave my father an account of the monkey he said : 展hen you two boys are older such things will not give you amusement. Animals are not happy when they are taken about the streets in coats and trousers, even if their owners seem kind to them. We said that if the monkey came again we would not go and see it, and my father said that he might later give me a dog.

Questions
1 . What came through the street when the two boys were playing in the garden ?
2 . What did the monkey have on ?
3 . What did the two boys do which made it possible for them to see over the heads of the others?
4 . How did the monkey get down from the box?
5 . Why did the boys and girls give a laugh?
6 . What do you have drink in at a meal?
7 . What cruel thing did a by do to the monkey?
8 . What makes animals happy?
9 . What cruel thing may a man do to a horse?
10. How may you be cruel to a dog even if you do not give it blows or keep it on a chain?

Answers
1 . A man with a music-box and a small monkey.
2 . Red trousers and a blue shirt, and a collar on in its neck (with a chain on it).
3 . They got up on the rail at the front of the house.
4 . It gave a jump.
5 . Because the monkey put the hat of the man on its head and the hat came down over the monkey痴 face (almost to its chin).
6 . A cup.
7 . He gave its tail a twist.
8 . Love.
9 . He may give it blows with a whip.
10. You may give it so much food that it gets fat and slow.





17 . EDUCATION

The business of a school is education,, which is teaching and learning. Education is the way to knowledge, because we get knowledge by learning, and teaching gives us help in learning. Any help which is given to us in our learning is teaching.
We go to school for education, but we do not get all our education there. Every sort of learning is part of it, and much of our learning is done outside the school-room. When you are having a walk in the country or in the town, you are seeing new things and getting new knowledge all the time. And if an older person is with you, he is giving you teaching every time he gives an answer to a question about the things which you see. Even if he says only that the bright red berry which you are putting out your hand for is a poison berry, or that you are in no danger of a bite from the bright fly on your hand, all that is education.
We get the greatest help from teaching abut such things as plants, or animals, or machines, when we may give them a look and a touch. A country friend may give us an account of the wing or a bird, but till we see a feather our knowledge will not be complete. We may have the knowledge that the help of a muscle is necessary for every move of a finger or a toe, and that other muscles are doing the work when we give anything a lift or a kick ; but if we did not ever give attention to our arms and legs we would not see how the muscles do these things. And though words may give us help in learning the form and size of every bone in our bodies, they do not give us the knowledge which we get when we see a bone or put our hands on it.
Another important part of our education is doing things and making things. We may get much knowledge from seeing something being made, but we get much more when we take the hammer and wood or the needle and cloth in our hands. In most schools this sort of learning comes first. They let the young boys and girls do things for which strong fingers and much knowledge are not necessary, like getting a house or a ship cut from stiff card or making small boats and boxes with bright paper by giving it one fold after another. These things may not seem very important, but by doing them well the feeble fingers are getting stronger and the young brains are getting knowledge which will have a value for more important work.

Questions
1 . What are the two processes in education ?
2 . Why is education the way to knowledge ?
3 . When we take a walk in the country with an older person, how may he give us knowledge ?
4 . When do we get the greatest help from teaching about such things as plants and animals ?
5 . What two things do the bodies of birds have which our bodies do not have ?
6 . What is necessary for moving fingers or toes ?
7 . What are the hardest parts of our bodies ?
8 . Why do schools let young boys and girls do and make things ?
9 . Why is work for which strong fingers are necessary not given to young boys and girls at school ?
10. Give two examples of work which they may do.

Answers
1 . Teaching and learning.
2 . Because we get knowledge by learning, and teaching gives us help in learning.
3 . By giving us answers to our questions.
4 . When we may give them a look and a touch.
5 . Wings and feathers.
6 . The help of muscles.
7 . The bones.
8 . Because doing and making things are an important part of their education.
9 . Because the fingers of young boys and girls are feeble.
10. They may get a house or a ship cut from a stiff card or they may make small boats or boxes with bright paper.




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18 . READING

One of the first and most important parts of school teaching is reading, because a book is the shortest way to most of the knowledge necessary for a good education. If men had no knowledge of writing they would have no books for reading. Learning the form of every letter is necessary for writing, but less so for reading at the start. You may get a knowledge of the form of a word before you have a knowledge of the separate letters in it. But you will not get very far till you give attention to the letters, and the sounds which the letters have.
Writing on paper may be done with a pencil or with a pen and ink. Very young boys and girls have pencils for writing, because if pens are given to them they may let the ink go on the table when they are taking the pen from the ink-pot, or a slip of the pen may make a dirty mark on a clean page of the writing-book.
In early times men had no print, but only writing, and a book did not have the form which it has now. It had no pages then, and no stiff cover. It was a roll. This was before any paper such as we have now was made. The writing was put on something which was very like paper, but stiffer than paper.
Reading is more than a way to knowledge ; we may get great pleasure from it. Reading a good story makes most boys and girls happy, even those whose school books give them the least pleasure.
Yesterday I saw in a book an old story about a beautiful young girl who had no mother. The woman to whom her father was married was cruel to her, and made her do all the dirty work of the house, and she was very sad. The smooth skin of her hands got rough, and her feet were cut by the stones, because even in the very cold weather she had no shoes.
One day when she was coming through some trees after getting wood for the fires, she saw a feeble old woman putting sticks in a basket. 添ou seem tired, said the girl. 鏑et me get your basket full for you, while you have a rest. 添es, please do so. I am very tired, said the old woman, and the girl took the basket. When she came again with the sticks, the old woman said : 添ou are a kind girl, so I will do something for you. While she was saying these words she took a small round box from the pocket of her skirt. Inside was a small parcel with a tight cord round it. When she got it loose the girl saw a bit of bright yellow stone in the paper.  Take this, said the old woman,  and put it in the bed of the woman who is cruel to you, but keep out meeting secret. Do not say anything about it, even to your father. Then the girl gave a cry of surprise, because suddenly the old woman was not there, but only a small yellow snake going very quickly over the grass.
With the parcel tightly in her grip, the girl went to the house, and that night, before the woman was in bed, she put the stone under the cover. In the morning, the woman was nowhere in the house, and she was not ever seen again. Though the surprise of the father and all the servants was great, they were all much happier when she was gone. And only the girl gave any attention to the account of a small yellow snake which was seen going from the house that morning.

Questions
1 . Why is the learning of reading one of the first steps in education ?
2 . What knowledge is necessary for writing ?
3 . What two ways of writing on paper are there ?
4 . How were books in early times different in form from the books we have now ?
5 . Before there was paper, what was writing done on ?
6 . What may reading do for us in addition to giving us knowledge?
7 . What sort of reading gives most boys and girl壮 pleasure ?
8 . Where did the old woman take the box from ?
9 . What was in the parcel ?
10. What did the girl do when she saw a snake in the place of the old woman ?

Answers
1 . Because a book is the shortest way to much of the knowledge necessary for a good education.
2 . A knowledge of the forms of the letters.
3 . With a pencil, and with a pen and ink.
4 . They had no pages or stiff covers they Were rolls.
5 . On something which was very like paper, but stiffer than paper.
6 . It may give us great pleasure.
7 . The reading of a good story.
8 . From the pocket of her skirt.
9 . A bit of bright yellow stone.
10. She gave a cry of surprise.



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19 . THE EARTH 1

At one time men said that the earth was flat, and fixed in space like an island in a great sea. But now everyone has the knowledge that the earth has almost the form of an orange and is all the time going round. It has two sorts of motion. Every 24 hours it makes a complete turn, like a ball with a rod through the middle when you give it a push with your finger. And all the time it has been doing this, it has been going forward, till at the end of a year it has gone completely round the sun.
The motion of the earth round the sun gives us summer and winter ; its other motion gives us night and day. The direction of the turn is from west to east, and that is why we see the sun going across the sky from east to west.
The earth goes round the sun and not out into space because the distance between the earth and the sun is kept fixed by the attraction of the sun. Every star in the sky is kept in its place by attraction. Our earth is a cold star. It is one of the 8 great stars which go round the sun.
All physical things have this quality of attraction for other physical thing The attraction between the earth and the moon keeps the moon going round the earth, and other stars have other moons which are kept near them by their attraction. The moon goes round the earth in a shorter time than the earth goes round the sun. The moon goes round the earth in a month.
A very long time before the existence of men, the earth was a mass of fire going round in space. It got colder till some thing like a hard skin came over it, thin at the start, but slowly getting thick, though even now the substance in the middle of our earth has not got cold.
At a later time the earth had water all over it. Then, here and there, a mass of land came up through the sea, making a mountain or a range of mountains, and the first dry land came into existence.
But this new dry land was not like dry land at the present time. It had no plants or animals on it, and not even any earth for the seed or root of a plant. The earliest plants and animals did not have their existence on the land, but in the water, and some books say that all plants and animals have come from a substance like jelly in the sea. The growth of plants was not possible till powder from the stones had made a cover of dust for the land. Then, slowly, some of the animals came from the water on to the land, and from them the first land animals came. But men did not come into existence till much later.
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1 . See the Notes on this Step.

Questions
1. What did men say at one time about this earth
2. What are the two motions of the earth?
3. Why does the sun seem to go from east to west?
4. What keeps the earth from going out into space?
5. What sort of body is the earth?
6. What goes round the earth?
7. What was the first dry land?
8. Why were there no plants on the first dry land?
9. What are the first plants and animals said to have come from?
10. What made a cover of dust for the land?


Answers
1 . That it was flat and fixed in space.
2 . It makes a turn and it goes round the sun.
3 . Because the turn of the earth is from west to east.
4 . The attraction of the sun.
5 . It is a cold star.
6 . The moon.
7 . Mountains or ranges of mountains which came up through the sea.
8 . Because it had no earth for their seeds or roots.
9 . A substance like jelly in the sea.
10. Powder from the stones.

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1 . "The earth," The expansion from earth as a substance to the earth as the star covered by that substance, and on which we are living, is a very natural one, needing only to be pointed out to be quite clear.

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20 . HISTORY


If we make a comparison between the time men have been on the earth and that part of their existence of which we have any record, we see that the start of history was not very early. The only account we have of the time before men had a knowledge of writing, and even of a long time after, is that which has been given by the broken stones of early towns, and bits of metal and other substances which have been taken from them. Then come records on stone and some bits of writing on paper, but these are not frequent till much later, and not one of them give us complete and certain knowledge of any event.
Even after the start of history, the records are far from complete. One reason for this may be that much of the knowledge which we have a desire for at the present time may not have seemed important to men of past times, and may not ever have been put in writing. But the most important reason is the loss of most of the old records. Men have not at all times kept such things with care, and a great number of those which would have had value for history are not now in existence.
When we come to later times, we have more records, but they do not all give us certain knowledge. Sometimes they give us two almost opposite accounts of one event. A history expert gives attention to all the old accounts and then says which is the most probable one. But though lie may he a good judge, lie is only giving us his opinion, and so our knowledge the event is only probable, not certain.
In later years men saw the need for records, and in our time the record of every important event in the history of any country is kept with the greatest care. Every library has shelves of books about the present time. The men of future times will certainly have a good knowledge of the process which has made them what they are. But even with all these books as a guide, some of their experts will probably have opposite opinions about some past events.
A map gives great help in the learning of history. The position of any country on the map is frequently a good guide to a knowledge of its history. On some maps of the earth every country has a line round it, and all the land which is part of it has one colour. If we make a comparison between earlier and later maps, we will see from an increase in the amount of any colour that the country which has that colour has made an addition to its land. Though some countries have not as much land as others, they may be quite as happy, and even happier.
History is not only the account of great events. It is the record of the existence of men and women, and things which seem small may sometimes be very important. In Ireland the growth of the first potato was an event in its history, and is as much a part of its record as the growth of its towns.
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See the Notes on this Step.

Questions
1 . What name do we give to the record of past events?
2 . How do we get our knowledge of times before men had a knowledge of writing?
3 . What is the chief reason why the number of early records is very small?
4 . When different accounts are given of one event, what does the history expert do?
5 . When he does this, what is he giving us?
6 . What need did men see in later times?
7 . What name do we give to a place where books are kept?
8 . What use will the books about the present time have in the future?
9 . What is frequently a good guide lo a knowledge of the history of any country?
10. If we see that there has been an increase of on, colour on the map of the earth, what knowledge does that give us?

Answers
1 . History.
2 . From the broken stones of early towns and bits of metal and other substances which have been taken from them.
3 . The loss of most of the old records.
4 . He gives attention to all the old accounts and says which is the most probable one.
5 . His opinion.
6 . The need for records.
7 . A library.
8 . They will give the men of future times a good knowledge of the process which has made them what they are.
9 . Its position on the map.
10. The knowledge that the country which has that colour on the map has made an addition to its land.