下面为大家整理一篇优秀的essay代写范文- The British school of communication，供大家参考学习，这篇论文讨论了英国的传播学派。英国的传播学派在反对进化论中发展起来了，曾经喧嚣一时，成为当时文化人类学中一种重要的声音，并在爱德华七世时代为英国民众所广泛接受。但在 1924年以马林诺夫斯基为代表的功能主义确立起来之后，它在学术界难觅继承人和支持者，便走向了衰落。这也是因为英国传播学派宣扬的文化-源说和埃及中心说太过绝对，一些主张也缺乏历史依据，使它与古典进化论一样有其自身的缺陷，也是其学术走向衰落的重要原因。
The first school of cultural anthropology was evolution, represented by Edward Burner Tylor in England and Lewis Henry Morgan in the United States, whose theoretical core was "single evolution theory". For example, Morgan said, "human beings started from the bottom of the stage of development. Only through the slow accumulation of experience and knowledge did they rise from ignorance to civilization." In addition, in order to explain the "single theory of evolution", their other important theory is the "psychological consensus theory", that is, because humans are the same in nature, equal opportunities and the same development path. As Taylor argues, "the history of human culture is part of natural history, and our thoughts, desires, and actions are adapted to such deterministic laws of motion, chemical composition, and the growth of plants and animals that govern the waves."
The classical evolutionist's claim has its merits, but its defects are obvious. For example, the viewpoint of biological evolution is mechanically applied to the process of social evolution, ignoring the external influences such as historical contact and geographical transportation. The school of communication is almost formed in the criticism of classical evolution. The first deo-Austrian school of communication uniformly opposed the single theory of evolution. For their single chronological view, they put forward the spatial order. They believe that culture or civilization is regional, the central culture spreads outward, and has space and time. Spatial perspective pays attention to the distribution of cultural characteristics; the time Angle pays attention to the superimposed relation of cultural traits, and the different traits of a cultural center come later in the order of time, forming the cultural layer with stratigraphic distribution. In addition, communicators believe that only in a very limited or possibly only one place do important cultural traits emerge and spread throughout the world.
However, the deo-Austrian school of communication is only the beginning of its opposition to evolution. Because in Britain, communication theory has taken a different path. From rivers, Smith to perry, the British communication school developed the thought of the German and Austrian communication school to the extreme, completely abandoned the German and Austrian scholars' multiple proposition, and proposed the monadic origin theory, which is called "sun center theory" or "pan-egyptianism".
W.H.R.R. ivers was a forerunner of the British school of communication, which first supported classical evolution. Faced with the complex cultural structure of Melanesian islands that cannot be explained by evolution, the theory developed from the second volume of the social history of Melanesia to the theory of communication. He believes that communication is achieved through immigration. It is the skilled immigrants who impose their culture on large groups of indigenous people. Rivers did not follow the german-Austrian school to divide the cultural circle, nor did he make too much analysis on cultural monism or pluralism, but only carried out the approach and method of communication. He focused on the research, which laid a breakthrough for Smith's research on the basis of the german-Austrian school theory. However, rivers was not a complete British communicationist, nor did he perfect the theory of British communication school. It was Smith who brought the British school of communication to its peak.
The core of g.e. lliot Smith's communication theory is that "Egypt is the source of all things". Belief in the sun god originated in ancient Egypt. The cult spawned cultural elements including mummies and calendars and spread to other societies with Egyptian migration and expeditions. This belief influenced the development of thought and belief and social practice of almost all human beings in later generations. He rejected human creativity, arguing that culture is rarely independent, that it occurs only in a certain context, and that such an environment exists only in ancient Egypt. He has also been working around the world to collect evidence similar to ancient Egyptian cultural elements, pushing this monism to its extreme.
Perry, a student of Smith's, is another head of the British school of communication. His theory can be seen as a continuation of Smith's theory, and at the same time, a certain degree of development and innovation. First, he inherited Smith's Egyptian centrism. Secondly, on the basis of Smith's theory, he divided culture into two levels: he defined the "natural person" in ancient times as the gathering and hunting culture; The second level is ancient culture, which is based on agriculture, complex stone construction technology, metal processing, etc., represented by Egyptian culture. He took "borrow" as the means of transmission, and focused on research. The vectors of transmission are those who seek out precious metals and other treasures, and discover new countries in their search.
The cultural communication theory represented by Smith was spread and developed against the classical evolution, and their opinions were different from those of the early German and Austrian school. Moreover, British cultural communication theory has its own distinct characteristics: the theory is radical and extreme, and even emphasizes that only Egypt is the source of civilization. The theory is huge and empty, lacks concrete historical basis, appears to be unconvincing; And obsessed with finding similar cultural elements to draw a road map for dissemination. Because their theories are unique. Thus formed the British communication school in the history of anthropology.
In the late 19th century and early 20th century, when the theory of evolution swept the world, how could the British school of communication be formed and have an impact in the academic circle? This can be analyzed from two aspects: social and historical conditions and the inheritance of academic thoughts.
The second industrial revolution began in Europe in 1870. This is a revolution represented by electrical technology. In Britain, plagued by old machinery and slow technological innovation, its power as an industrial powerhouse has begun to slip and Germany and the us have risen rapidly. Germany overtook Britain in industrial production at the end of the 19th century. In the 20th century, especially after the first world war, Britain gradually withdrew from its industrial hegemony, and its maritime trade and colonies were strongly competitive by other countries. In this environment, British society is suffused with a slightly pessimistic atmosphere. For example, the dead English literary world, the pessimistic Schopenhauer's voluntarism prevailed in Britain and so on. And this kind of negative communication theory of human creativity is more easily accepted by the British people at that time.
Although Britain's colonial rule was challenged by other countries, its hegemony was not completely lost in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. During this period, British colonial rule in the islands of Egypt and Indonesia is still solid. It also paved the way for Smith and rivers to conduct their own research in the islands of Egypt and Indonesia. And because "in commerce, in colonies, and in sea trade, Britain faces ever more pressing competition. To compensate for this loss, the British bourgeoisie, in addition to continuing to expand its colonies and commodity markets, focused more on its control over the colonies. Therefore, the British social anthropology, especially the new communication school, has been widely paid attention to and developed when the control of colonies needed to be further strengthened. Many scholars believe that it was the British social anthropologists who pushed forward the ethnocentrism, implying that the cultural recipients of the colonies were subordinate cultures without their own creativity.
From the second half of the 19th century to the early stage of the first world war, British foreign policy has been "glorious isolation", not with the European continent's countries in peacetime peace treaty. This gives the British a freer hand in their affairs. And, in Europe, Germany has become Britain's biggest rival. This has certain influence and effect on the British communication scholars who do not follow the theories of the german-Austrian school and develop the extreme communication theory with their own characteristics more freely.
Before the middle and late 19th century, the classical theory of evolution met the needs of the rising bourgeoisie. It played an important role in breaking the feudalism theology's confinement to the bourgeoisie, and was therefore valued and applied by the bourgeoisie for its own service. However, with the further development of classical evolution, this theory began to be used by the proletariat. Engels praised evolution more than once: "Morgan enabled us to create new ideas because he provided us with unprecedented factual evidence through prehistory." And more importantly, Marx and Engels critically absorbed and applied the theory of classical evolution, and reached the conclusion that capitalism is not the ultimate stage of society, but must evolve into socialism. Therefore, the bourgeoisie has to find new social theories more in line with their requirements. The theory of communication was then supported by the bourgeoisie. Britain is an established capitalist power and colonial country. Its social anthropologists are more receptive to the theory of communication school and derive more extreme communication theory.
The german-Austrian school laid the ideological foundation for the formation of the British communication school. In the DE 'o school of communication, both the human geography of razer and the "cultural circle" theory of froubenius, grabner and Schmitt all provided the basis for the theory and research method of the British school of communication. Smith and perry, for example, argue that human civilization is disposable in Egypt. This theory is based on the theory of grabner. Grebna believes in the theory of the cultural circle. Human culture is produced once, and history has no repetition, so there is no law. People's inventiveness is limited and it is impossible to create the same thing independently twice. Similar things appear in different places because of communication. It also laid the groundwork for Smith and perry's theory of extreme communication. In addition, frobenius argues that "culture has no feet; man is only a porter of culture". This is the basis of the communication carrier of culture discussed by British communication scholars. Smith believed that the carrier of cultural communication was Egyptian immigration; Perry thinks it's egyptians looking for gold.
The formation and development of the British communication school is also related to the theoretical defects of classical evolution, which provides the opportunity for the communication school to attack it. Boas has said that classical evolution "attempts to establish any case anywhere and to explain its generalizations about the past and the foreseeable future are futile". This school of thought, increasingly seen by scholars as a utopian structure, is opposed. And the first opposition to form a system is the communication school. Classical evolution has initiated the research of social anthropology, and communication school has become another important theoretical system in social anthropology in the criticism of classical evolution, and in the long debate of whether independent invention is important or communication is important. In the British school of communication, rivers started his research on social anthropology by accepting the classical evolution theory. At the same time, he became a communicationist in his criticism of evolution and formed a new communication theory in Britain.
To sum up, the British communication school, represented by Smith, developed in the fight against evolution, which was once in uproar and became an important voice in cultural anthropology at that time, and was widely accepted by the British people in the era of Edward vii. However, after the establishment of the functionalism represented by B.K.M. Iinowski in 1924, it was difficult to find successors and supporters in the academic world and went into decline. Of course, the "culture-source theory" and "egyptian-center theory" advocated by the British school of communication are too absolute, and some claims lack historical basis, which makes it as flawed as the classical evolution theory, and is also an important reason for its academic decline. However, the British school of communication is not without value, and its theory has its merits. For example, Smith tried to construct the grand history of human civilization on the basis of his communication theory, which is an important reference for modern methodology of global history. In terms of the way of cultural communication, the British school of communication is also deeply studied. Both Smith's "Egyptian immigrant" and rivers's "new arrival" are valuable references to the social anthropology of later generations. Brown of the functional school, boas of the cultural area school of the United States and other scholars have more or less studied and referred to it. Nowadays, cultural communication is an indisputable fact, and its views have been accepted by the public. The social anthropologist, led by boas, developed the American cultural regional school on the basis of communication theory. It can be said that communication theory has become an important system in cultural anthropology and an important method to study human culture and social development. As a part of this system, the British communication school, though extreme and slightly obscure, is highly individual and worthy of further study.
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The first school of cultural anthropology was evolution, represented by Edward Burner Tylor in England and Lewis Henry Morgan in the United States, whose theoretical core was "single evolution theory". For example, Morgan said, "human beings started from the bottom of the stage of development. Only through the slow accumulation of experience and knowledge did they rise from ignorance to civilization." In addition, in order to explain the "single theory of evolution", their other important theory is the "psychological consensus theory", that is, because humans are the same in nature, equal opportunities and the same development path. As Taylor argues, "the history of human culture is part of natural history, and our thoughts, desires, and actions are adapted to such deterministic laws of motion, chemical composition, and the growth of plants and animals that govern the waves."
The classical evolutionist's claim has its merits, but its defects are obvious. For example, the viewpoint of biological evolution is mechanically applied to the process of social evolution, ignoring the external influences such as historical contact and geographical transportation. The school of communication is almost formed in the criticism of classical evolution. The first deo-Austrian school of communication uniformly opposed the single theory of evolution. For their single chronological view, they put forward the spatial order. They believe that culture or civilization is regional, the central culture spreads outward, and has space and time. Spatial perspective pays attention to the distribution of cultural characteristics; the time Angle pays attention to the superimposed relation of cultural traits, and the different traits of a cultural center come later in the order of time, forming the cultural layer with stratigraphic distribution. In addition, communicators believe that only in a very limited or possibly only one place do important cultural traits emerge and spread throughout the world.
However, the deo-Austrian school of communication is only the beginning of its opposition to evolution. Because in Britain, communication theory has taken a different path. From rivers, Smith to perry, the British communication school developed the thought of the German and Austrian communication school to the extreme, completely abandoned the German and Austrian scholars' multiple proposition, and proposed the monadic origin theory, which is called "sun center theory" or "pan-egyptianism".
W.H.R.R. ivers was a forerunner of the British school of communication, which first supported classical evolution. Faced with the complex cultural structure of Melanesian islands that cannot be explained by evolution, the theory developed from the second volume of the social history of Melanesia to the theory of communication. He believes that communication is achieved through immigration. It is the skilled immigrants who impose their culture on large groups of indigenous people. Rivers did not follow the german-Austrian school to divide the cultural circle, nor did he make too much analysis on cultural monism or pluralism, but only carried out the approach and method of communication. He focused on the research, which laid a breakthrough for Smith's research on the basis of the german-Austrian school theory. However, rivers was not a complete British communicationist, nor did he perfect the theory of British communication school. It was Smith who brought the British school of communication to its peak.
The core of g.e. lliot Smith's communication theory is that "Egypt is the source of all things". Belief in the sun god originated in ancient Egypt. The cult spawned cultural elements including mummies and calendars and spread to other societies with Egyptian migration and expeditions. This belief influenced the development of thought and belief and social practice of almost all human beings in later generations. He rejected human creativity, arguing that culture is rarely independent, that it occurs only in a certain context, and that such an environment exists only in ancient Egypt. He has also been working around the world to collect evidence similar to ancient Egyptian cultural elements, pushing this monism to its extreme.
Perry, a student of Smith's, is another head of the British school of communication. His theory can be seen as a continuation of Smith's theory, and at the same time, a certain degree of development and innovation. First, he inherited Smith's Egyptian centrism. Secondly, on the basis of Smith's theory, he divided culture into two levels: he defined the "natural person" in ancient times as the gathering and hunting culture; The second level is ancient culture, which is based on agriculture, complex stone construction technology, metal processing, etc., represented by Egyptian culture. He took "borrow" as the means of transmission, and focused on research. The vectors of transmission are those who seek out precious metals and other treasures, and discover new countries in their search.
The cultural communication theory represented by Smith was spread and developed against the classical evolution, and their opinions were different from those of the early German and Austrian school. Moreover, British cultural communication theory has its own distinct characteristics: the theory is radical and extreme, and even emphasizes that only Egypt is the source of civilization. The theory is huge and empty, lacks concrete historical basis, appears to be unconvincing; And obsessed with finding similar cultural elements to draw a road map for dissemination. Because their theories are unique. Thus formed the British communication school in the history of anthropology.
In the late 19th century and early 20th century, when the theory of evolution swept the world, how could the British school of communication be formed and have an impact in the academic circle? This can be analyzed from two aspects: social and historical conditions and the inheritance of academic thoughts.
The second industrial revolution began in Europe in 1870. This is a revolution represented by electrical technology. In Britain, plagued by old machinery and slow technological innovation, its power as an industrial powerhouse has begun to slip and Germany and the us have risen rapidly. Germany overtook Britain in industrial production at the end of the 19th century. In the 20th century, especially after the first world war, Britain gradually withdrew from its industrial hegemony, and its maritime trade and colonies were strongly competitive by other countries. In this environment, British society is suffused with a slightly pessimistic atmosphere. For example, the dead English literary world, the pessimistic Schopenhauer's voluntarism prevailed in Britain and so on. And this kind of negative communication theory of human creativity is more easily accepted by the British people at that time.
Although Britain's colonial rule was challenged by other countries, its hegemony was not completely lost in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. During this period, British colonial rule in the islands of Egypt and Indonesia is still solid. It also paved the way for Smith and rivers to conduct their own research in the islands of Egypt and Indonesia. And because "in commerce, in colonies, and in sea trade, Britain faces ever more pressing competition. To compensate for this loss, the British bourgeoisie, in addition to continuing to expand its colonies and commodity markets, focused more on its control over the colonies. Therefore, the British social anthropology, especially the new communication school, has been widely paid attention to and developed when the control of colonies needed to be further strengthened. Many scholars believe that it was the British social anthropologists who pushed forward the ethnocentrism, implying that the cultural recipients of the colonies were subordinate cultures without their own creativity.
From the second half of the 19th century to the early stage of the first world war, British foreign policy has been "glorious isolation", not with the European continent's countries in peacetime peace treaty. This gives the British a freer hand in their affairs. And, in Europe, Germany has become Britain's biggest rival. This has certain influence and effect on the British communication scholars who do not follow the theories of the german-Austrian school and develop the extreme communication theory with their own characteristics more freely.
Before the middle and late 19th century, the classical theory of evolution met the needs of the rising bourgeoisie. It played an important role in breaking the feudalism theology's confinement to the bourgeoisie, and was therefore valued and applied by the bourgeoisie for its own service. However, with the further development of classical evolution, this theory began to be used by the proletariat. Engels praised evolution more than once: "Morgan enabled us to create new ideas because he provided us with unprecedented factual evidence through prehistory." And more importantly, Marx and Engels critically absorbed and applied the theory of classical evolution, and reached the conclusion that capitalism is not the ultimate stage of society, but must evolve into socialism. Therefore, the bourgeoisie has to find new social theories more in line with their requirements. The theory of communication was then supported by the bourgeoisie. Britain is an established capitalist power and colonial country. Its social anthropologists are more receptive to the theory of communication school and derive more extreme communication theory.
The german-Austrian school laid the ideological foundation for the formation of the British communication school. In the DE 'o school of communication, both the human geography of razer and the "cultural circle" theory of froubenius, grabner and Schmitt all provided the basis for the theory and research method of the British school of communication. Smith and perry, for example, argue that human civilization is disposable in Egypt. This theory is based on the theory of grabner. Grebna believes in the theory of the cultural circle. Human culture is produced once, and history has no repetition, so there is no law. People's inventiveness is limited and it is impossible to create the same thing independently twice. Similar things appear in different places because of communication. It also laid the groundwork for Smith and perry's theory of extreme communication. In addition, frobenius argues that "culture has no feet; man is only a porter of culture". This is the basis of the communication carrier of culture discussed by British communication scholars. Smith believed that the carrier of cultural communication was Egyptian immigration; Perry thinks it's egyptians looking for gold.
The formation and development of the British communication school is also related to the theoretical defects of classical evolution, which provides the opportunity for the communication school to attack it. Boas has said that classical evolution "attempts to establish any case anywhere and to explain its generalizations about the past and the foreseeable future are futile". This school of thought, increasingly seen by scholars as a utopian structure, is opposed. And the first opposition to form a system is the communication school. Classical evolution has initiated the research of social anthropology, and communication school has become another important theoretical system in social anthropology in the criticism of classical evolution, and in the long debate of whether independent invention is important or communication is important. In the British school of communication, rivers started his research on social anthropology by accepting the classical evolution theory. At the same time, he became a communicationist in his criticism of evolution and formed a new communication theory in Britain.
To sum up, the British communication school, represented by Smith, developed in the fight against evolution, which was once in uproar and became an important voice in cultural anthropology at that time, and was widely accepted by the British people in the era of Edward vii. However, after the establishment of the functionalism represented by B.K.M. Iinowski in 1924, it was difficult to find successors and supporters in the academic world and went into decline. Of course, the "culture-source theory" and "egyptian-center theory" advocated by the British school of communication are too absolute, and some claims lack historical basis, which makes it as flawed as the classical evolution theory, and is also an important reason for its academic decline. However, the British school of communication is not without value, and its theory has its merits. For example, Smith tried to construct the grand history of human civilization on the basis of his communication theory, which is an important reference for modern methodology of global history. In terms of the way of cultural communication, the British school of communication is also deeply studied. Both Smith's "Egyptian immigrant" and rivers's "new arrival" are valuable references to the social anthropology of later generations. Brown of the functional school, boas of the cultural area school of the United States and other scholars have more or less studied and referred to it. Nowadays, cultural communication is an indisputable fact, and its views have been accepted by the public. The social anthropologist, led by boas, developed the American cultural regional school on the basis of communication theory. It can be said that communication theory has become an important system in cultural anthropology and an important method to study human culture and social development. As a part of this system, the British communication school, though extreme and slightly obscure, is highly individual and worthy of further study.
想要了解更多英国留学资讯或者需要英国代写，请关注51Due英国论文代写平台，51Due是一家专业的论文代写机构，专业辅导海外留学生的英文论文写作，主要业务有essay代写、paper代写、assignment代写。在这里，51Due致力于为留学生朋友提供高效优质的留学教育辅导服务，为广大留学生提升写作水平，帮助他们达成学业目标。如果您有essay代写需求，可以咨询我们的客服QQ：800020041。
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