剖析论文Discussion部分和句式分享

论文的Discussion（讨论）部分由于没有固定的模式，往往成为留学生无从下笔的地方，这次我们就针对Discussion写作方面的知识做一些分享，方便掌握这部分的技巧。
想要写好Discussion，首先要了解Discussion的概念。Discussion部分是查看自己的研究与研究所处的更广泛背景的关系。因此，需要回顾一下你在文献综述中为你自己的研究提供的基本原理，并讨论自己的研究在此背景下添加的内容。此外，还要阐述你了解所做的研究的局限性，以及这些可能会如何影响研究结果的有效性或有用性，这一点很重要，同时报告你的研究发现对理论，研究和实践的影响。简言之，Discussion是介绍你的研究重要性的重要部分。你的研究结果意味着什么，它们与该领域已知的研究如何融为一体，它们对目前的科学观念以及临床实践有何影响，它们对未来的研究有何指导意义。写Discussion的一个目的是为了确保读者对你的研究结果有个正确、准确的理解。

一篇好的“讨论”(Discussion)可以在开头先重申一下“引言”中提出的研究问题和假设，接着总结一下你的主要研究结果。这样一来，读者对于你是否推进了该领域的研究就一目了然了。从最重要或最相关的结果写起，然后再转向相对次要的内容。此刻暂不要讨论有争议或者难以解释的结果。这个阶段，你只须描述那些能直接回答“引言”中提出的问题或与假设直接相关的主要结果。不要用那些数据不支持的“大而空”的语言，也不要夸大结果的重要性。用“suggests”比用“shows”更好，切忌使用“proves”。此外，要尽量不要重复“结果”部分的内容，而只需简要说明主要结果然后再谈其含意。这部分需要变换时态，叙述你的结果以及文献结果时用过去时，论述其意义时用现在时。


“讨论”的第二部分常被忽视，并往往造成拒稿。重申问题和结果之后，还需要陈述其相关性和重要性。你需要把你的结果放在文献研究背景中加以比较，并讨论其意义。这部分构成了“讨论”主体，这部分告诉读者（当然还有编辑）：从已有文献的基础上来评价，你的结果到底有什么意义？它们与其他研究者的工作之间存在什么关联。你的研究可能存在备择解释，对此应予提及并尽可能排除（或者至少论证它们的可能性很低）。如果仍有备择解释无法排除，你的研究就属于“尚未完成”，或者至少是“尚在进行中”；在这种情况下，你需要在“讨论”的结尾部分，提出将开展哪些实验来进一步排除备择解释或确认哪种解释才是正确的。


主要结果和背景的关系理清之后，就可以提及有争议或难以解释的发现，并提出可能的解释。没问题，这里你可以猜测，只要不要太过分。关键的问题是，你讨论和阐述了这些问题，而不是置之不理。“讨论”部分不能出现新术语或新结果；所有结果都该在“结果”部分叙述完整；所有术语也应在“引言”中就提出。最后，“讨论”部分要解释一下此研究的局限性。与其等审稿人指出，不如自己提出；这样也许反而会增加正面审稿意见从而缩短发表周期。一个研究存在局限性本身并不是问题，大多数研究都有这样那样的局限性。所以重要的是要承认它并提出在进一步研究中如何克服。在阐述完局限性之后往往紧接着就是描述未来的研究。


有些期刊有单独的“结论”部分；就算没有，也要在“讨论”的最后一段点明研究的结论。最后一段（或最后一部分）应简要复述一下主要研究结果及其重要性，陈述该研究如何推进了本领域的研究，但不要用完全相同的语言。要提及结果的新颖性和重要性，但再说一次，不要夸大其词。如有必要可以提出进一步研究，如果本工作是初步研究则进一步研究可放在最后一句。若不是初步研究，就可以用明确的措施来总结本研究的影响，但仍要注意不要夸大其词。

综上所述，在discussion这部分，同学们要把“结果”中展示的证据线索和“引言”中的背景资料关联起来。遗憾的是，许多作者(特别是来自非英语国家的作者)常常不够重视“讨论”部分，认为只需把结果罗列出来，然后让读者自行去得出结论即可。就君道论文小编这些年辅导修改的学生论文来讲，留学生们写Discussion部分，通常存在以下问题：1）过分夸张或赞美自身的工作；2）进行过多的文献综述；3）不必要地重复引言中提供的研究背景；4）重复给出结果部分中的数据；5）讨论冗长，篇幅过长。这些问题使得同学们的研究未能获得应有的影响力。然而，导师往往希望同学们的论文能推进该研究领域，并形成影响；所以有必要善用“讨论”部分来尽可能增强论文的影响力。如果在一篇论文当中把Discussion部分写得好的话，可以使得整篇论文富有吸引力，给你的Tutor以深刻的启发和引导。

而本文中将给出Discussion部分写作的经典结构 – 俗称“倒漏斗型”(Reverse Funnel)：

一般情况下discussion部分写作总是遵循下面的一般原则。

1、 首先对研究报告进行简短的概述（在包含多个相关研究时这点显得特别重要）【- A brief synopsis of the research reported (particularly important when several related studies are included).】。

2、 描述本研究结果与过去已报道的研究文献的关系，例如：

a. 你的研究结果是否与现有文献相一致？

b. 你的结果如何填补现有文献的空缺？

【 Connections to existing empirical research:

How do your results fit with existing literature?
How the your results fill a gap in the existing literature? 】
3、 阐明本研究结果与相关理论的关系。 【- Connections to relevant theory. 】

4、 描述和讨论你的研究所存在的不足或局限性。目的是预测Tutor可能提出什么问题并在他们提出之前给予回答。【 Description and discussion of potential limitations, or constraints, on the interpretation of your results. The aim here is to anticipate reviewer or editor objections and provide answers to them, before they are raised. 】

5、 提出本研究在实际情况中的应用，即其存在的意义和应用价值。【Possible applications of the results in practical situations. 】

6、 最后根据研究结果，提出有关未来研究的建议。【Suggestions for future research, building on your results.】

讨论了discussion有关的定义，写作技巧，原则等方面，为了帮助同学们写好discussion部分，这里君道论文小编再和同学们说一下discussion具体的写作步骤：

在开始写discussion时首先要考虑，你的选题是否适合把结果和讨论作为一个整体部分，还是各自独立成章更加合适。

建立讨论部分与论文综述部分之间的紧密联系

1. 写之前先回顾你前面所写的文献综述部分（literature review）

2. 开始写的时候通过参考文献综述，将你的研究结果也就是finding部分与以前的研究结果进行比较，尤其要比较与先前研究的结果相矛盾的结果。将你的结果与文献综述中讨论的理论联系起来。找到与研究空白（gaps）相关的证据以及研究目的或主要的研究内容。

3. 讨论你的研究的局限性。

4. 为未来的研究提出方向。

如果需要的话，在这一过程中还要不断优化你的文献综述部分，确保讨论部分重要的问题也在文献综述部分存在。建立讨论部分和各个分论题（themes）之间的紧密联系进行这一部分的写作时有一个小窍门，就是列出literature review中每个themes的关键信息清单。 这一清单可以作为你写作过程中的对照检查清单。针对每一个结果的讨论，你不用对下面清单的每一个要点做出解释说明，但是起草讨论部分时值得花时间依序思考每一个要点。

这个清单中的内容需要包含：

1. 最重要的研究发现的综述，一般按顺序写出其重要性

(1)这些重要发现是否支持原始假说、如何支持研究主要活动、如何回答研究问题

（themes）、如何符合研究目标；

(2)与先前的研究发现是否一致。

2.研究主要目的或假说相对应的参考文献，或研究主要活动概述。

3.研究的限制，把研究限制在一定范围，在实验，或者调查问卷，或者访谈条件下概括出研

究的发现。

4. 研究发现的解释，.猜测你获得某些结果的原因。但是解释须有参考文献支持;以及关于研究

发现的思考推断，同样需要引用参考文献支持。

5. 进一步研究的建议以及/或实际应用。

6. 研究的蕴含(从结果归纳总结，在更广泛的范围内研究结果含义是什么)。

当然，在写作Discussion的具体步骤中，我们还需注意下列问题：

一是没必要过于重复结果。因为结果已经在结果部分进行了展示，讨论部分的结果是为了“讨论”，就是对研究结果的意义进行分析的。当然只分析意义似乎过于单薄，而且在前言部分也有一定论述。该文建议我们围绕结果密切相关研究存在的问题进行讨论，也就是说该小领域中比较重要的科学问题，讨论的目的是说清楚你的研究解决了该领域中的具体什么问题。

“所以，Discussion不能过多地罗列和重复结果部分的内容，这是常犯的错误，因为感觉没什么可说的，就重复结果来充数。讨论部分可以就你的实验结果论述与你的结果密切相关的研究现状存在的一系列问题，你的工作是解决的哪一部分问题。”讨论开始时，最好能够开门见山：“Here, we describe…”或“ In this paper, we show that…. ；Importantly, …；suggesting…”。讨论的其他部分也尽量不要赘述，开门点题，下面是一些常用的短语和句式：

“Overall, our studies establish the…”；

“Although there are important discoveries revealed by these studies, there are also limitations. First, …；Second, …； Third, …；Fourth, …；Last, …Overall, …”；

“Furthermore, our results suggest that…”；

“Our results suggest a possibility of…”；

“One important future direction of …is…”；

“To this end, we show that…”；

“However, none of these approaches to date holds the…”；

“Our studies serve as a proof-of-concept that…”；

“This could explain why…”；

“Alternatively,… maybe operative…”；

“Thus, future iterations of … may, in fact, demonstrate even greater potency.”；

“On the other hand, the lack of…”；

“In summary, we have identified…”；

“Our results confirm that…”；

“These studies thus offer a new strategy to treat…”

讨论中延伸的本质是展示自己，要让同行了解你对这个领域中全局的了解。一般来说一个研究不可能面面具到，是一个大的范围内的一个小问题，如果是短期效应，就要谈谈长期效应，如果对一个器官有效应，可以讨论其他器官，可以对比其他学者的工作，比较相同点、自己的特色和区别。

其次需要有延伸。关键是提供很多结果部分不能体现的信息，如你的工作的长期效应、潜在效应、与他人工作的比较，相同之处、不同之处、你的优势和特色，你的结果存在的问题、局限性及其原因、将来可以改进的地方等等。

最后尽量不要忽视自己研究存在的不足。你的结果存在的问题、局限性及其原因、将来可以改进的地方等等。可以就你实验中得到的跟预期不一致的interesting的结果简单讨论一下可能的原因。对于一篇研究来说，research中的一些问题是很难躲得掉的，还不如主动提出讨论，变被动为主动。

以上便是君道论文小编对Discussion的一些浅谈。总之，Discussion，就是英文论文中的讨论部分，也是dissertation中最重要的部分。Discussion写的好，dissertation就有很大几率得A。所以同学们一定要认真对待论文的Discussion部分。

在文章的最后，小编给大家一些Useful Phrases，方便同学们写作Discussion：

Background information (reference to literature or to research aim/question)

A strong relationship between X and Y has been reported in the literature.

Prior studies that have noted the importance of ……

In reviewing the literature, no data was found on the association between X and Y.As mentioned in the literature review, ……

Very little was found in the literature on the question of …..

Statements of result (usually with reference to results section)

The results of this study show/indicate that …….

This experiment did not detect any evidence for ……

On the question of X, this study found that ……

The current study found that ……

The most interesting finding was that ……

Unexpected outcome

Surprisingly, X was found to …….

Surprisingly, no differences were found in ……

One unanticipated finding was that …..

It is somewhat surprising that no X was noted in this condition ……

What is surprising is that ……

Reference to previous research (support)

This study produced results which corroborate the findings of a great deal of the previous work in this field.

The findings of the current study are consistent with those of Smith and Jones (2001) who found ……

This finding supports previous research into this brain area which links X and Y.

This study confirms that X is associated with ……

This finding corroborates the ideas of Smith and Jones (2008), who suggested that ……

Reference to previous research (contradict)However, the findings of the current study do not support the previous research.

This study has been unable to demonstrate that ……

However, this result has not previously been described.

Explanations for results:

There are several possible explanations for this result.

A possible explanation for this might be that …..

Another possible explanation for this is that ……

This result may be explained by the fact that …../ by a number of different factors.

It is difficult to explain this result, but it might be related to ……

Noting implications

This finding has important implications for developing …..

An implication of this is the possibility that ……

One of the issues that emerges from these findings is

Commenting on findings

However, these results were not very encouraging.

These findings are rather disappointing.

The test was successful as it was able to identify students who ……

Suggestions for future work

However, more research on this topic needs to be undertaken before the association between X and Y is more clearly understood.

Further research should be done to investigate the ……

Research questions that could be asked include …..

Future studies on the current topic are therefore recommended
51due留学教育原创版权郑重声明：原创优秀代写范文源自编辑创作，未经官方许可，网站谢绝转载。对于侵权行为，未经同意的情况下，51Due有权追究法律责任。主要业务有essay代写、assignment代写、paper代写、作业代写服务。
51due为留学生提供最好的作业代写服务，亲们可以进入主页了解和获取更多代写范文提供作业代写服务，详情可以咨询我们的客服QQ：800020041。

计算机通讯工程论文范文精选 -- GSM Communication

以下为计算机论文范文 - GSM Communication
Introduction
GSM is a connection between two people − a caller and the called person – is the basic service of all telephone networks. To apply this service, the network must has ability to set up and maintain a call, which includes some tasks: identifying the called person, determining the location, routing the call, and ensuring that the connection is continued until conversation lasts. After the transaction, the connection is terminated.

GSM是两个人之间的连接：呼叫者和被叫人，它是所有电话网络的基本服务。要应用此服务，网络必须能够设置和维护呼叫，其中包括一些任务：识别被叫人，确定位置，路由呼叫以及确保连接一直持续到对话持续。在事务之后，连接终止。

In a fixed telephone network, providing and managing connections is an easy process, because telephones are connected by wires to the network and their location is permanent from the networks’ point of view. Whereas, in a mobile network, the establishment of a call is more complex task, because it doesn’t have wire and permanent location. It enables the users to move by wireless (radio) connection.

在固定电话网络中，提供和管理连接是一个简单的过程，因为电话通过电线连接到网络，并且从网络的角度来看它们的位置是永久性的。然而，在移动网络中，建立呼叫是比较复杂的任务，因为它没有线路和永久位置。它使用户能够通过无线（无线电）连接进行移动。

What is GSM?
GSM stands for Global System for Mobile Communication and is an open, digital cellular technology transmits mobile voice and data services. It is a digital mobile telephony system that is widely used technology in the world. The GSM market has more than 70 percent of the world’s digital cellular subscribers. The GSM makes use of narrowband Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) technique for transmitting signals. The GSM was developed by using digital technology. It has an ability to carry 64 kbps to 120 Mbps of data rates.

GSM代表全球移动通信系统，是一种开放的数字蜂窝技术，可传输移动语音和数据服务。它是一种数字移动电话系统，是世界上广泛使用的技术。GSM市场拥有全球70％以上的数字蜂窝用户。GSM利用窄带时分多址（TDMA)技术发送信号。GSM是使用数字技术开发的。它能够承载64 kbps至120 Mbps的数据速率。

GSM operates at either the 900 MHz or 1800 MHz frequency band. In Europe, operates in the 900MHz and 1.8GHz bands and in US, operates 1.9GHz and 850MHz bands. The GSM is a circuit-switched system that divides each 200 kHz channel into eight 25 kHz time-slots.

GSM工作在900 MHz 或1800 MHz频段。在欧洲，运行在900MHz和1.8GHz频段，在美国，运行1.9GHz和850MHz频段。GSM是一个电路交换系统，它将每个200 kHz信道分成8个25 kHz时隙。

Cell phones use GSM network by searching for cell phone towers in the nearby area. GSM carriers have roaming contacts with other GSM carriers and typically cover rural areas more completely. GSM also has the advantage of using SIM (subscriber identity module) cards. The SIM card, which acts as your digital identity, is tied to your cell phone service carrier’s network rather than to the handset itself. This allows for easy exchange from one phone to another without new cell phone service activation.

手机通过搜索附近区域的手机信号塔来使用GSM网络。GSM运营商与其他GSM运营商具有漫游联系，并且通常更全面地覆盖农村地区。GSM还具有使用SIM卡。SIM卡作为您的数字身份，与您的手机服务运营商的网络相关联，而不是与手机本身相关联。这样可以在不激活新手机服务的情况下轻松地从一部手机更换到另一部手机。

Today, more than 690 mobile networks provide GSM services across 213 countries and GSM represents 82.4% of all global mobile connections. According to GSM World, there are now more than 2 billion GSM mobile phone users worldwide. GSM World references China as “the largest single GSM market, with more than 370 million users, followed by Russia with 145 million, India with 83 million and the USA with 78 million users.”

如今，超过690个移动网络在213个国家提供GSM服务，GSM占全球移动连接的82.4％。据GSM World称，目前全球有超过20亿的GSM手机用户。GSM World将中国称为“最大的单一GSM市场，拥有超过3.7亿用户，其次是俄罗斯，有1.45亿，印度有8300万，美国有7800万用户。”
51due留学教育原创版权郑重声明：原创优秀代写范文源自编辑创作，未经官方许可，网站谢绝转载。对于侵权行为，未经同意的情况下，51Due有权追究法律责任。主要业务有essay代写、assignment代写、paper代写、作业代写服务。
51due为留学生提供最好的作业代写服务，亲们可以进入主页了解和获取更多代写范文提供作业代写服务，详情可以咨询我们的客服QQ：800020041。

关于“支出增长与经济衰退之间的关系”- Marketing论文范文

以下为marketing论文范文 - 消费者支出增长对经济衰退的影响。
elect a retail sector with which you are familiar. What is the likely impact on the sector of a downturn in the growth of consumer spending- What strategies should a (named) retailer in the sector adopt to minimise the threat?
消费者支出增长对经济衰退可能有什么影响？ 选择您熟悉的零售行业。该行业的（指定）零售商采取什么策略来减少威胁？
Following the financial and economic crisis in 2007, the reduction in consumer spending had a significant impact upon major high street fashion brands including Marks and Spencer, which saw sales and profitability fall significantly. In response to this, M&S adopted a strategy of contraction, which entailed the closure of a number of stores, particularly in the Simply Foods outlet sector. However, despite the fact that this ostensibly led to a reduction of costs, it can be argued that this approach also had an adverse effect upon the marketing mix and competitive advantage of the business. This was proven by the fact that M&S lost market share as a result of this strategy while other fashion stores, such as Primark and Zara maintained their growth pattern through this period.
在2007年的金融和经济危机之后，消费者支出的减少，对包括Marks and Spencer在内的主要高街时尚品牌产生了重大影响，其销售和盈利能力大幅下降。为此，玛莎百货（ M&S ）采取了收缩策略，包括关闭一些商店，特别是在Simply Foods的直销店。然而，尽管这显然降低了成本，但这种方法也对营销组合和企业的竞争优势产生了不利影响。事实证明，由于这一战略，M＆S失去了市场份额，而Primark和Zara等其他时装店在此期间保持了增长模式。
It is considered that the strategy M&S should have adopted should have been based upon a more proactive approach. In this respect, there are two elements that the corporation needed to address. The first of these is to ensure that a policy of value chain management is re-enforced, which would reduce costs and therefore prices, while at the same time allowing the business to maintain its profitability levels. For example, had the marketing message for M&S been more focused upon delivering consumer savings rather than news of store closures, which forces additional cost on the consumer in terms of travelling to the store, it is likely that consumer loyalty would have been maintained at a higher level. Secondly, there was a need to ensure, through appropriate marketing research, that the products being offered met with the changing demands and needs of the consumer during this period. Similarly, it is likely that had the marketing focus for the business during this period been more directed towards lower cost elements and savings available to the consumer that this would have also contributed in maintaining its market share within the fashion sector. In other words, the corporation needed to adopt a proactive rather than reactive approach to marketing during the economic downturn.
M＆S应该采用更积极主动的策略。在这方面，公司需要解决两个问题。第一个是确保重新实施价值链管理政策，这将降低成本，从而降低价格，同时允许企业维持其盈利水平。例如，如果M＆S的营销信息更侧重于提供消费者储蓄，而不是关闭商店，这会导致消费者在前往商店方面产生额外成本，那么消费者的忠诚度可能会保持在更高层次。其次，有必要通过适当的市场调查确保所提供的产品在此期间满足了消费者不断变化的需求。同样，在此期间，企业的营销重点可能更多地针对消费者可获得的低成本要素，这也有助于维持其在时尚领域的市场份额。换句话说，在经济衰退期间，公司需要采取主动而非被动的营销方法。
There is strong movement amongst supermarkets to buy in consumer products which are not traditional supermarket lines (e.g., TV sets). The supermarkets do not carry a full range of these items and are not committed to carrying them all the time. What are the strategic reasons for this kind of activity? What are the risks?
超市之间的强势运动是购买非传统超市系列（例如电视机）的消费产品。超市不提供所有这些物品，也不承诺供给。这种活动的战略原因是什么？有什么风险？
Over recent decades, Supermarkets in the UK have continued to diversify the range and scope of the products and services they offer to their customers. This has included an expansion into non-food products, such as technology and entertainment goods, home furnishings and even the inclusion of service based products, such as banking and insurance offerings.
近几十年来，英国超市不断扩大其向客户提供的产品和服务范围。这包括非食品产品，例如技术和娱乐产品，家居用品，甚至包括服务类产品，例如银行和保险产品。
51due留学教育原创版权郑重声明：原创优秀代写范文源自编辑创作，未经官方许可，网站谢绝转载。对于侵权行为，未经同意的情况下，51Due有权追究法律责任。主要业务有essay代写、assignment代写、paper代写、作业代写服务。
51due为留学生提供最好的作业代写服务，亲们可以进入主页了解和获取更多代写范文提供作业代写服务，详情可以咨询我们的客服QQ：800020041。

Why do people resist change at work -- MBA论文范文精选

今天将分享MBA论文范文：resist change
为什么人们会抵制工作中的变化？如何从人力资源的角度克服这种阻力？
Why do people resist change at work and how can this resistance be overcome from an HR perspective?

1. Introduction
Change is a common feature of the workplace. This paper examines why people resist change at work. It then explores how this resistance can be surmounted from an HR viewpoint.

2. Resistance to change at work
From research into individual and organisational behaviour, it is well established that people at work can sometimes resist change (Robbins, 1992). The Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development (CIPD) define resistance to change at work as “an individual or group engaging in acts to block or disrupt an attempt to introduce change” (CIPD, 2014, p.2) and argue that, in general, resistance to change in the workplace occurs in two ways: “resistance to the content of change” and “resistance to the process of change” (CIPD, 2014, p.2).

The reasons for resistance to change at work are numerous. Resisting change enables stability and for the status quo at work to be maintained (Robbins, 1992). Change jeopardises the comfort zones and security of employees who are risk averse and who like familiarity (Holbeche, 2001). The fear of the unknown may result in resistance to change (Robbins, 1992). There may be resistance when change appears to threaten someone’s income (Robbins, 1992). Change can appear threatening to the individual worker when it is foisted on them top down without their input as they do not feel in control (Holbeche 2001).

Gifford et al (2012), in their review of change programmes in NHS South of England, found that “many people do embrace change, but it is easy to feel undermined or threatened by it, even if one accepts at a broad level that change is needed. As well as the challenge of embracing new ways of working, it can be hard to let go of the old ways. Not only do people have ingrained habits and ways of thinking; they also become skilled in familiar work and may feel that their credibility is based upon it. For example, if someone spends years honing skills in a specific procedure and is then told they should be using a completely different technique, this may cut at their sense of self worth” (Gifford et al, 2012, p. 15).

Thus, there may be resistance if a person’s perception of how the world of work should be is threatened. Robbins (1992) explains that “individuals shape their world through their perceptions. Once they have created this world, it resists change. So individuals are guilty of selectively processing information in order to keep their perceptions intact” (Robbins, 1992, p.281).

Psychologists have studied resistance to change and it has been recognised that change may involve a significant shift for the individual, like a bereavement, where what was once certain is no longer so and they have to relinquish the familiar in order to be able to embed change (Holbeche, 2001).

The psychological contract is an important consideration when looking at resistance to change at work. Guest and Conway (2002) defined the psychological contract as “the perceptions of both parties to the employment relationship, organisation and individual, of the reciprocal promises and obligations implied in that relationship” (Guest and Conway, 2002, p.22). The CIPD (2005) argue that the psychological contract is “now best seen as a tool that can help employers negotiate the inevitable process of change so as to achieve their business objective without sacrificing the support and co-operation of employees along the way” (CIPD, 2005, p.4).

CIPD (2005) commented that people expected commitments made to them by management to be honoured and that management should make the effort to do so. Where management is not able to honour a commitment, attempts should be made, however difficult, to explain why and its impact on the employee. A breach of the psychological contract is likely to result in employees having a negative attitude to their employer which would include resistance to change. A case study at a Scottish manufacturing plant, where employees believed that the psychological contract had been breached by the employer, noted that the regular imposition of change programmes had resulted in a high level of cynicism amongst supervisors and shop floor staff (Pate, Martins and Staines 2000).

If there is a lot of organisational change in a workplace, it is likely to be negatively received by its staff (CIPD, 2005;Guest and Conway 2001). Furthermore, where there is frequent change, it is likely to result in staff believing that management do not know what they are doing and their trust in them declines (CIPD 2005) (Guest and Conway 2001).

In spite of all the above, research into change management reveals that there are things that can be done to alleviate resistance to change.

3. Overcoming resistance to change: the HR viewpoint
3.1 Adopt a positive approach to resistance at work
Resistance to change can be a cue for stakeholders in an organisation to have a meaningful debate about the merits of the proposed change. This may lead to amendments and improvements to the change (Robbins 1992).

3.2 The need to understand why change is happening
Research has shown that it is important for staff to understand why change is happening in terms how it will benefit the business and ideally how will it benefit them.

In the Gifford et al (2012) review of change programmes across the NHS South of England, it concluded that “leaders need to sell the benefits of the change. To do this they need to express their vision in a way that makes it easy for stakeholders to relate it to the purpose and values of the NHS and to their own principles and motivations” (Gifford et al., 2012, p.5). Gifford et al (2012) added that “purpose and vision [of the change programme] are crucial factors” (Gifford et al., 2012, p. 51) that should be communicated in many ways to make sure the message connects with the stakeholders.

In redundancy situations, Holbeche (2001) discovered that there was a “link between the perceived reason for the delayering and the effect on employees. If people thought that the reason for the delayering was simply cost cutting, their morale and motivation tended to be more adversely affected than where there appeared to be a more ‘strategic’ reason for the change” (Holbeche, 2001, 367).

3.3 Communication
Communication plays a critical part in helping staff understand why change is happening and in feeling engaged in the change process. Internal communication mechanisms which enable staff to feel empowered and involved are key to minimising resistance. Two way communication mechanisms like attitude surveys can be effective, but only if visible changes arise as a result (Holbeche, 2001). Other forms of communication that can help are senior management presentations (where questions can be asked and answered), road shows, team briefings and management cascades, question and answer mechanisms (for example by email) and internal newsletters (Holbeche, 2001).

Communication should ideally involve an element of being two way and should include all stakeholders. The CIPD (2005) found that top down communiques by senior managers were perhaps the most ineffectual way of delivering important messages to staff. Mission statements were slightly more effectual, but the most successful way of reaching staff with messages that they are likely to believe is through line managers (CIPD, 2005).

In recent times, storytelling, narratives and theatre have been used in change situations as innovative ways of communicating with staff in order to get them engaged and involved. These methods allow for a move away from top down senior management communication (Daley and Browning, 2014, Dennis, 2010, Thomas and Northcote, 2012).

Formal communication, in times of change, should:

Inform – about the organizational/ personal implications
Clarify – the reason for the change, the strategy and benefits
Provide direction – about the emerging vision, values and desired behaviours
Focus – on immediate work priorities and actions, together with medium term goals
Reassure – that the organisation will treat them [staff] with respect and dignity” (Holbeche, 2001, p.368).
3.4 Staff engagement
Those affected by the change need to feel engaged so that they believe that they are invested in the change. This can be time consuming and difficult for those leading the change (CIPD 2005, Gifford et al. 2012). Engagement can mean getting staff to buy into change that has already been devised or it can mean getting staff involved in actually designing the change (Gifford et al., 2012). Leaders need to be clear about what level of engagement is being offered as unfulfilled expectations risk demotivating staff and weakening good will. (Gifford et al, 2012).

Bearing in mind the psychological contract, the CIPD (2005) argue that managing change well involves getting employees’ buy-in and making sure that they are not caught unawares. Employees want fair treatment and it is important that they believe that they can trust management. As stated earlier, if employees’ expectations are not to be met, the reason why should be explained by management (CIPD, 2005).

3.5 Leadership
Those in leadership positions in the organisation have to act as role models for change to be successful. If the behaviour of the leaders in an organisation is at odds with their verbal utterances in a change situation, it can result in cynicism in staff and thus resistance to change.

Holbeche (2001) reports of a case study where company directors were charged with leading an organisational change involving paying particular attention to the customer. The directors talked to staff about the importance of the organisation’s values, especially teamwork. However, staff knew that the senior leadership team did not work well as a team and thus, the change message was being met with cynicism. When the Chief Executive took drastic action and threatened to punish the directors financially, that was when the directors became serious about role modelling good team work and effective leadership. As a result, the change message became believable to staff.

3.6 Apply learning from neuroscience
Dowling (2014) explored the connection between neuroscience and change management. He found that neuroplasticity, the concept of the adult brain being able to change through specific activity and experiences, was applicable in change situations, if it was self-directed by the individual employee. He advised that employers should give their employees the latitude to have their own insights into the proposed change and that this would allow new neural pathways to be formed in the employees’ brain, making sustainable change possible.

Downing (2014) also explored the impact of threat and reward on employees’ behaviour. He argued that when a person is faced with a perceived threat, the brain has an inbuilt defence mechanism which is activated. This provides some explanation as to why there is resistance at work when an employee feels threatened. This argument reinforces the need for those leading the change to emphasize the benefits of the proposed change so that the employee’s brain reward response is activated as opposed to their threat response.

Downing (2014) additionally looked at habit and how the prefrontal cortex of the human brain (the advanced cognition brain area) operates primarily on the basis of habit, otherwise it would be using a huge amount of energy which would not be sustainable. During periods of change, when individuals are being required to adopt new habits, a heavy burden is potentially being placed on the prefrontal cortex. When designing change programmes, there needs to be an awareness of the brain’s limited capacity for change (Downing, 2014, Scarlett, 2013).

3.7 HR
HR has a pivotal role to play in staff communication and engagement as well as in planning change effectively, including taking into account the learnings from neuroscience. There has to be a real partnership between the business and HR for change to be effective. HR plays a role in assisting, developing and supporting those in leadership positions to be effective in their roles so as not to undermine the success of the change programme and engender resistance to change (Holbeche, 2001, CIPD, 2005, Gifford et al., 2012).

4. Conclusion
Although resistance to change is something that occurs in the workplace for many understandable reasons, it can be minimised by good communication and staff engagement, explaining the need for change in terms of its benefits to the business and to the individual member of staff, learning from research, effective leadership as well as HR working well with the business and being an integral part of the change. Overcoming resistance at work matters, as while resistance is occurring, it may result in negative consequences such as having a negative impact on performance and productivity, creating an environment for turf wars at work as well as demoralising and demotivating staff (Holbeche, 2001,Robbins 1992, Cannon and McGee 2008, Hughes, 2010).
51due留学教育原创版权郑重声明：原创优秀代写范文源自编辑创作，未经官方许可，网站谢绝转载。对于侵权行为，未经同意的情况下，51Due有权追究法律责任。主要业务有essay代写、assignment代写、paper代写、作业代写服务。
51due为留学生提供最好的作业代写服务，亲们可以进入主页了解和获取更多代写范文提供作业代写服务，详情可以咨询我们的客服QQ：800020041。