Essay代写：International law on climate change

下面为大家整理一篇优秀的essay代写范文- International law on climate change，供大家参考学习，这篇论文讨论了国际气候变化法。如今，国际气候变化法体系存在整体强制约束力较低的问题。面对本世纪全球气候变化的巨大挑战，只有部分国际气候变化法拥有强行法的地位与效力，才能确保全球减排行动达到预期目标。确立国际气候变化法的强行规则，存在识别与公认的困难。合理界定国际气候变化法中强行法的范围，完善国际气候变化法的遵守与强制执行机制，尽快确立全球性气候变化法的强行法地位，对解决全球气候变化问题至关重要。

The contemporary international climate change law system has the problem of low binding force. Faced with the great challenge of global climate change in this century, only some international climate change laws have the status and effectiveness of mandatory law, so as to ensure that global emission reduction actions can reach the expected targets. It is difficult to identify and recognize the mandatory rules of international climate change law. It is of vital importance to reasonably define the scope of mandatory law in international climate change law, improve the compliance and enforcement mechanism of international climate change law, and establish the mandatory status of global climate change law as soon as possible.

According to the 2018 report of the UN intergovernmental panel on climate change, the minimum goal of limiting global warming below 2°C from pre-industrial levels can only be achieved if deep cuts in emissions are made to zero by the middle of the century. Delays in action raise the risk of climate change. Therefore, it is imperative to make the international climate change law more mandatory and give full play to its mandatory role.

Global climate change law refers to a series of climate change treaties, agreements and protocols and other real international laws with a large number of contracting parties, covering most countries and regions in the world, and playing an overall guiding role. Global climate change law plays a pillar role in the process of tackling global climate change. It is the latest expansion of international law in the field of climate change. The United Nations framework convention on climate change, the core and foundation of the global legal framework on climate change, has been signed by 196 countries and one regional economic integration organization. The ultimate goal of the convention is to stabilize the concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere at a level that prevents dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system. The convention is to follow-up the foundation of all relevant international treaties to generate and implement, especially the principle rules, fair principle, the principle of common but differentiated responsibility, national sovereignty principle, proportion principle, prevention principle, the principle of sustainable development and international cooperation principle, become the core of the level of international climate change the rule of law in essence.

The Kyoto protocol is the first comprehensive extension of the global legal framework on climate change. Annex B to the protocol sets out quantified emission reduction targets for annex I countries to reduce their total emissions of these gases by at least 5 per cent from 1990 levels during the 2008-2012 commitment period. Although the final effect of the implementation of the protocol is not satisfactory and there are some ACTS of withdrawal and delay, it is still an inevitable stage for the development of international climate change rule of law. The Paris agreement is the second comprehensive extension of the global legal framework on climate change and a new milestone. The purpose of the agreement is consistent with the basic purpose of the convention. The minimum emission reduction target in the new period is to keep the increase of global average temperature above the pre-industrial level below 2. Within c, the ideal expectation is to limit temperature increases to 1.5 above pre-industrial levels. C. The core mechanism of the agreement is to fully embody the principle of respective capabilities under the principles of equity and common but differentiated responsibilities, and to implement the compilation and notification of national autonomous contributions. The agreement, which seeks broader international cooperation by relinquishing certain coercive force and certainty, will be fully implemented after 2020.

After the entry into force of the protocol, the Bali roadmap is an important outcome of COPl3. The Bali action plan has influenced long-term cooperative activities under the convention from 2007 to 2012, including Shared vision, mitigation, adaptation, technology and financing. The Copenhagen climate conference did not produce binding legal results on climate change. For this reason, the 2009-2012 period is mainly to amend the protocol and pave the way for the establishment of a new round of global emission reduction mechanism. The cancun agreement contains a comprehensive intergovernmental package to help developing countries cope with climate change and is a further implementation of the Bali action plan. The durban outcome was a turning point in the climate change negotiations, with delegates at COPl7 agreeing on an "implementation roadmap" for action beyond 2020. The doha amendments are quantified emission reduction targets for the second commitment period of the protocol to better facilitate ratification by parties.

The Warsaw accord was agreed on COPl9 to form a universally binding climate change agreement by 2015. At the same time, the Warsaw conference stressed that further agenda should help the poorest countries cope with the risks posed by climate change, and the green climate fund should be set up by 2014 to help finance action. The "Lima declaration on action" states that all parties should make efforts to achieve the 1.5 ° c /2 ° c goal of controlling global warming and reach a new universal and binding climate change agreement under the principle of "common but differentiated and respecting each other's capabilities". Since the adoption of the agreement in 2015, the parties have focused on further implementation, communication and cooperation. The talanoa dialogue platform aims to create an inclusive, participatory, transparent and constructive dialogue mechanism in preparation for COP24.

Regional climate change laws are in a blank in the global scope. There is no formal unified regional climate change laws in the eu, North America, Africa, China, asean and other important regions. Such gaps in international law arise mainly because regional climate change laws are difficult to define the international rights and obligations of states parties. First of all, the national climate change law is based on their respective national conditions, considering its actual operation ability of domestic special laws, the vast majority of countries and area are the convention and the agreement of the parties, the two global climate deal deeply influence in domestic policy and legislation of each of the parties, the regional climate change law with universality and climate change law and national climate change law international law conflict. Second, it is hard to find a significant number of countries in a region with the will and strength to act as leaders, organizers and coordinators. Therefore, regional climate change law is conducive to improving the international climate change law system and strengthening regional cooperation, especially in the aspects of carbon emission rights trading, joint implementation and financial and technical support. However, in practice, the eu adopts a uniform policy on climate change within its region, rather than adopting the form of regional international law with binding force. This choice in practice is the result of the reconciliation of climate change policies and laws. When regional climate change legislation is difficult, climate change policies will play a positive role.

Taking China's bilateral cooperation on climate change as an example, the china-uk joint statement on climate change emphasizes that parties should timely report their nationally determined contributions and strengthen bilateral policy dialogue and practical cooperation through the china-uk working group on climate change. The china-us joint statement on climate change highlighted the actions of China and the us to address climate change after 2020, and established the china-us working group on climate change. Including the china-eu joint statement on climate change, the bilateral joint statement on climate change stressed that in the future, bilateral cooperation in carbon emission trading capacity building, carbon market building, low-carbon city building, clean production technology, carbon capture, utilization and storage, low-carbon technology and other fields will be strengthened. Although bilateral cooperation on climate change usually takes the form of joint statements without binding force, these "soft laws" can send a positive signal to the world that major countries should respond to climate change and promote the multi-tiered development of international climate change law.

Article 53 of the Vienna convention on the law of treaties provides the definition of the mandatory law of general international law: "the international community as a whole accepts and accepts as a norm which cannot be undermined and which can only be changed by later norms of general international law of the same nature." The concept of "forcible law" and "arbitrary law", which originated from the concept of domestic law, extend to the field of international law. In the field of state exchanges and human rights, the development of coercive law has given rise to a clear level of effectiveness of international law, and it also plays a central role in stabilizing international order and dealing with global issues. Although we may regard the provisions of article 53 of the convention on the law of treaties as the general definition of jus cogens, this definition is still relatively broad and lacks clear identification criteria. For example, it is not clear whether "total acceptance" means total acceptance by an absolute majority or a certain percentage. "Not allowed to damage" is to reflect the essence of universal performance behavior, or form of the rate of contracting to reach the threshold value. The convention and the agreement have been signed and ratified by most of the countries in the world, but the existence of "periodic opposition states" and "consistent opposition states" has become an important obstacle to establishing the mandatory status of global climate change law. In the Kyoto era, when annex 1 countries such as the United States, Australia and Japan disagreed with the protocol, it was impossible to say that the climate agreement was accepted as a whole by the international community. Since the trump administration took office, the United States has withdrawn from many international multilateral frameworks, which makes the current international climate change law unstable. It is difficult to identify the international law on climate change because of the obstacles in the development process of climate change law.

From the convention to the agreement of the parties to the performance situation, most countries can perform their respective obligations, that is, in fact, the international climate change law mandatory binding implied admits that some bilateral joint statement to respond to climate change, such as declaration of action is to express admit of international climate change law mandatory binding. However, the recognition of the mandatory binding force of the global climate change law does not mean that the mandatory law status of the international climate change law has been recognized by the international community. Comparing with the development situation of international human rights law and international law of the sea, the international court of justice and the international tribunal for the law of the sea have already had international judicial practice in dealing with international disputes in these two fields. However, international disputes caused by global climate change are only a few cases. Faced with this potential risk, no authoritative international organizations such as the United Nations and the international court of justice are willing to interpret the mandatory effect of international climate change law, which does not benefit the vested interests of specific international institutions. International non-governmental organizations and non-governmental organizations lack such global influence and the legitimacy of the main body of interpretation. It is difficult for the international community to recognize the mandatory law status of international climate change law, which makes global climate change governance full of twists and turns and uncertainties.

The argument of forced law theory is rooted in the opposition between natural law school and positive law school. The natural law school holds that there are general international principles and norms beyond the will and power of states, while the positive law school holds that international law originates from the will of states. Recent Chinese scholars of international law, such as professor wang tieya and professor li haopei, clearly believe that there exists international coercive law and affirm its important role. In the traditional field of international forcible law, diplomatic rules have developed from the long-standing customary international law to the modern concrete international law. The international protection of human rights and the fight against genocide and other international crimes were rapidly developed and improved in the context of the rapid expansion of the international law system after World War I and World War II. This paper holds that international climate change enforcement law includes: first, customary international law formed from universal and uninterrupted global practice of emission reduction; the second is the mandatory and binding positive part of the global climate change law, which mainly includes the basic principles of international climate change law and general rules on mitigation and adaptation actions. On the one hand, customary international law on climate change is emerging. On the other hand, the current international climate change positive law also reflects the global habit of responding to climate change and actively reducing emissions since the 1990s.

First of all, from the perspective of the nature and binding force of international law, recent scholars of international law and international relations have no doubt that international law is law. Of course, international law has different levels of legal binding force, and state ACTS are subject to international law. Secondly, from the perspective of legality, international law plays an important role in safeguarding national interests and common interests of the international community as well as good international order. Finally, from the perspective of international public opinion and international reputation, the behavior of abiding by international law is closely related to a country's international leadership and external development conditions, and the long-term benefits obtained by abiding by law are far higher than the short-term benefits obtained by retaliation and sanctions. Keohane believes that scholars of international law and international relations have profound views, but it is difficult to independently explain the difficult problems in international issues. Therefore, abiding by the international mandatory law on climate change is the fundamental way to regulate state behavior, maintain international order, promote the coordination and protection of interests, and realize the international rule of law on climate change.

The issue of compliance with international law has been widely discussed in international law, international relations, sociology and economics. Taking "interest" as the basis of compliance, rational choice theory and realistic instrumentalism become representative theories. On the basis of "norm", constructivist management process theory and transnational legal process theory are the representatives. In the current trend of interdisciplinary and theoretical integration, the compliance mechanism of international law is a complex problem. This paper holds that the basis for the observance of international law is the harmony and game between national interests and the common interests of the international community, and the intrinsic cause for the observance of international law is the conviction of the subject of international law, which comes from the perfection of international legal system construction and the formation of international rule of law pattern. Compliance with the mandatory law on international climate change is also fundamentally driven by the coordination of national interests and the overall interests of the international community in the face of the risk of climate change, and directly driven by collective action on the international rule of law on climate change.

There are many obstacles to the enforcement of international law, such as the attribute of "soft law" of international law, non-uniformity of international legal liability system, constraints of international relations, lack of uniform enforcement agency and limited enforcement ability of international organizations. Mr Seruti argues that global challenges, narrowly defined as nuclear weapons and global climate change, could wreak havoc on the global system in the foreseeable future. The enforcement of the international law on climate change is the key to solving the global climate change problem. As a matter of fact, the enforcement of international climate change law has a sufficient legal basis, but it is quite difficult to implement the enforcement in practice. If the establishment of a centralized and unified global law enforcement agency is unrealistic, the establishment of a specialized enforcement monitoring body in the field of international law on climate change is urgently needed and realistic. The national voluntary contribution and reporting system, global inventory and notification system established in the agreement do not touch on the mandatory implementation of international emission reduction obligations and mandatory sanctions of international legal responsibility for emission reduction. In the charter of the United Nations to join the global challenge oath "constitutional" provisions, the international court of justice in the case of global climate change law to force the interpretation of the nature law, set up the special climate change law court, the United Nations climate change under the framework of the council and its working group, etc., the establishment of the international climate change forced method need these visionary system design and development with the international practice.

International climate change law of the system status showed the characteristics of uneven imperfect, bilateral cooperation on climate change, soft law is difficult to play a substantial role, regional climate change law is difficult to produce, the core framework of global climate change law, lack of force effectiveness, the rules and abide by the mechanism is not sound, these unfavorable factors to effectively solve the problem of global climate change, planted hidden danger. The development of international forcible law bears too many heavy costs. After experiencing the fundamental issues concerning the survival and development of human society, such as world war, slave trade, genocide and humanitarian crisis, international forcible law develops in a lagging way. But in the case of global climate change, the lag of international law will have a fatal impact on global development. To keep pace with the objective evolution of global climate change, it is an urgent requirement based on the reality. Only by establishing the mandatory rules of international climate change law can the international community fully respond to the challenge of global climate change.

51due留学教育原创版权郑重声明：原创essay代写范文源自编辑创作，未经官方许可，网站谢绝转载。对于侵权行为，未经同意的情况下，51Due有权追究法律责任。主要业务有essay代写、assignment代写、paper代写、作业代写服务。

51due为留学生提供最好的essay代写服务，亲们可以进入主页了解和获取更多essay代写范文 提供代写服务，详情可以咨询我们的客服QQ：800020041。

Assignment代写：Donna halavisenberg theory

下面为大家整理一篇优秀的assignment代写范文- Donna halavisenberg theory，供大家参考学习，这篇论文讨论了唐娜·哈拉维的赛博格理论。1985年，唐娜·哈拉维模仿《共产党宣言》的笔法，撰写并发表了著名的《赛博格宣言》，宣言中独特的视角与全新的观点引起了学术界的巨大反响与轰动。哈拉维赛博格理论的提出与当时的社会科技发展状况及各种女性主义流派的兴起与争论有着密不可分的关系。赛博格理论的提出，为女性主义走出困境开辟了一条全新的道路。

In 1985, Donna harraway copied the writing style of the communist manifesto and wrote and published the famous "cyborg manifesto". The unique perspective and brand new viewpoint in the manifesto aroused great repercussions and sensation in the academic circle. The theory of hala viseberg is closely related to the development of social science and technology and the rise and debate of various feminist schools.

Since the third scientific and technological revolution, the rapid development and wide application of science and technology have brought great impact on human production and life. Therefore, some scholars began to pay attention to and study the relationship between these high-tech and human beings. In 1948, Nobert Wiener published cybernetics, which combines neurophysiology and pathology in biological sciences, computer and computer technology, communication engineering, automatic regulation and other technologies, providing a new methodology for the research of modern science and technology, and opening a new era for the research of organism and machine. The profound thought has attracted widespread attention, soon after, a combination of computer, cybernetics, information and sensing technology, artificial intelligence and other disciplines and form of the robot technology raised a hot wave of scientific and technological progress, and cybernetics as a research system with adaptive ability structure rule and the process of science, become the technology development in this period is the important theory basis.

At the same time, science fiction, as a form of expression of technological culture, entered a prosperous period of development. Some science fiction writers took the relationship between human and machine as the writing material and background, combined with their own strange ideas, sketched various images of robots, mutant humans and superman. Soon, science fiction films based on these novels appeared. For example, alien, terminator, etc., all of these works show the science fantasy of man-machine integration, and they are full of man-machine integration characters and human-machine interface scenes.

It is these scientific researches on the relationship between man and machine and the science fantasy of man-machine integration that provide sufficient realistic basis and imagination space for the proposal of hala viseberg theory.

From the 18th century to the 1980s, various feminist schools emerged one after another. Each school put forward its own views and propositions, but it was also criticized and opposed by other schools. Liberal feminism genre of equality, justice, think women as the root cause of the disadvantaged groups oppressed lies in the lack of equal education opportunities and fair competition, but the theory did not mention the problem such as race, class, caused by the differences, and still have value of male center, caused the genre of opposition from other women. In the politics of sex, Kate millett argues that men have an institutional right to women that is not innate but socially constructed. This is a huge challenge to the idea that women's subordination is a product of nature. The radical feminist school developed its own ideas based on this. The field of sex and body is the most concerned field of radical feminism. Katherine McKinnon, a representative of radical feminism, famously said, "sex to feminism is what work is to marxism: both self-owned and deprived." But the school's extreme view of gender and men as enemies quickly drew fierce criticism from other schools.

In the 1970s, socialist feminism emerged. The school points out that only by changing the entire social structure, namely overthrowing capitalism and establishing socialism, can real gender equality be realized. However, scholars who are critical of this view argue that this analysis confers the division of labor caused by gender differences with capitalism and ignores the fact that women are still oppressed in socialist society.

So feminists began to wonder: is male dominance really biological? Are there other theories that explain why women can't move on from the past? Soon, Freud's concept of "unconsciousness" brought light to these feminist scholars. Some senior feminists believe that Freud's unconscious concept put forward and prove that destroyed the rationality, subjectivity and the significance, and provides the cultural determinism, which can be used to resist the biological determinism of gender identity theory and physiology, so they started to use Freud's psychoanalysis study feminism at the root of the oppressed, the resulting psychoanalytic feminist schools. However, although the feminist theory of psychoanalysis provides a new perspective for women's liberation, scholars who hold critical opinions on the theory point out that Freud's psychoanalysis has the color of patriarchal system, and feminism should not borrow its theory, but adopt a comprehensive critical attitude to it. Some scholars believe that psychoanalytic feminism is difficult to solve the practical problems of women and shows political incompetence.

At the same time when feminism is facing difficulties again, postmodernism begins to be popular in western social culture, art and philosophy. Postmodernism opposes defining a given text, representation or symbol in the form of various conventions, and points out that it can be interpreted from the perspective of individuals, situations, culture, politics and even sex. In other words, different readers can interpret a given text differently, and the traditional male interpretation is deconstructed by feminists and marginalized interpreters. Based on the above cultural background, hala d from the standpoint of the postmodernism, argued that only scattered, local small theory is effective, the moral and political ideas based on the context of a small scale, and most entrenched in western knowledge structure of the two socialist criticism, puts forward the theory of game's, for feminist opened up a new path out of the woods.

51due留学教育原创版权郑重声明：原创assignment代写范文源自编辑创作，未经官方许可，网站谢绝转载。对于侵权行为，未经同意的情况下，51Due有权追究法律责任。主要业务有assignment代写、essay代写、paper代写服务。

51due为留学生提供最好的assignment代写服务，亲们可以进入主页了解和获取更多assignment代写范文 提供北美作业代写服务，详情可以咨询我们的客服QQ：800020041。

Proposal怎么写

Proposal的写作是每一位留学生必须经历的一道关卡，它大致对应中文里的“开题报告”，一篇好的Proposal可以帮助我们整理思路、廓清方向，给接下来的论文写作奠定基础。那么Proposal该怎么写呢？今天51due代写平台就给大家讲解一下Proposal的写作技巧。

国外大学的学习不再仅仅是基础知识的积累了，开始偏重于理论和方法的研究，对于数据和证据的收集与分析，来证明自己的观点，最后得出结论。

不仅是对学生基础的考查，更是有助于培养独立思考的能力与习惯，由此看来，进步的第一步是要找到一个好的Proposal，也就是好的论文选题。

即遵守可行性原则、科学性原则、创新性原则、弹性原则，方法有了，并不代表可以做好一篇论文，这也需要大学期间不断地学习、积累、提高。留学生们可以从以下几点好好准备自己的研究小项目：

好好学习自己的专业课程，上课认真听讲，灵活做笔记，包括展示的重点以及老师提出的一些观点。课下找一下导师提出的参考书目，对比几种观点，试着探讨其中的论证方法；

充分利用学校的图书馆资源，要有大量的阅读积累，这样导师在谈论起各位名家的观点的时候心里可以将自己的想法与导师的观点作比较。积累包括书籍和电子期刊文献等多方面资源；

多与自己的导师沟通交流，对于导师所讲述的内容有不理解的或是不赞同的，可以先独立思考，自己试着解决疑问，有不懂的要及时并较多地与导师沟通；

多听几场质量很高的讲座，尤其是有关学术论文或者Proposal的；

可以向高年级的留学生请教准备研究项目和写论文的经验，甚至可以拜读他们的优秀论文，这样不仅能够使自己学术方面取得进步，也可以加深祖国同胞之间的感情；

自己试着记下自己的Proposal灵感。当积累到一定的程度，听到一些观点的时候，头脑中会闪现很多巨著当中的权威言论，要及时用笔记下来，自己可以先搜集证据，用一些科学论证方法来得出求证。

Proposal写作最重要的就是找准写作方法和技巧，希望大家看完这篇文章之后，都能从中找到适合自己的写作技巧。

如果大家觉得写英国论文还是有困难，那快来找我们英国论文代写机构吧，51due英国论文代写机构为你提供英国留学知识，专业辅导，还为你提供专业英国论文代写，需要找论文代写的话快来联系我们51due工作客服QQ：800020041或者wechat：Abby0900吧。

Paper代写：The bretton woods system

本篇paper代写- The bretton woods system讨论了布雷顿森林体系。自二战以来，在布雷顿森林体系的推动下，世界贸易与经济逐渐呈现全球化的趋势，世界外汇、资本、贸易均在西方主要国家实现了高度自由化，直接促进了战后资本主义世界经济的恢复和发展。布雷顿森林体系是建立在美国强大的经济、军事实力的基础之上的，其主要机构包括国际货币基金组织和世界银行。布雷顿森林体系于20世纪70年代解体，标志着以美元为中心的国际货币体系在形式上的终结。本篇paper代写由51due代写平台整理，供大家参考阅读。

Since the second world war, world trade and economy have gradually presented a trend of globalization under the promotion of the bretton woods system. World foreign exchange, capital and trade have all been highly liberalized in major western countries, directly promoting the recovery and development of the post-war capitalist world economy. The bretton woods system was built on the strong economic and military strength of the United States. Its major institutions include the international monetary fund and the world bank. The disintegration of the bretton woods system in the 1970s marked the formal end of the international monetary system centered on the us dollar. However, due to the strong economic strength of the us and its absolute superiority in the IMF and WB, the us dollar has maintained its position as the world's leading trade settlement currency in the wave of dedollarization. Economic and trade globalization will not end in the current world trade frictions, but will emerge in a broader wave of globalization based on a new monetary settlement system that is more in line with the interests of all countries.

There is a view in marxist political economy called "economic basis determines superstructure". As an economic law, it is universal and will not be limited to a country or region. The bretton woods monetary system is also the superstructure, it is the global foreign exchange, capital, trade economic treaty system. After the war, the continuous evolution of the world economic map, coupled with some inherent defects of the bretton woods system, directly led to the collapse of the system. Although the system has broken down, the dollar still serves as the main settlement currency for global trade, especially in some commodities, such as oil. The United States continues to export dollars to the world, and USES the dominant position of the dollar in global trade to grab the economic interests of all countries, which has triggered a new round of de-dollarization wave in the world and the expectation of all countries to build a new currency settlement system. With the end of the bretton woods system and the new world monetary settlement system still not established, the global trade friction and anti-globalization movement show a general trend of wave after wave. In order to fully grasp the rules of global economic and trade operation, it is necessary to conduct a comprehensive study of the economic history related to the bretton woods system and globalization.

First of all, bretton woods is a place name of the United States, because the United Nations monetary and financial conference was held here, so the outcome of this conference and the name of the place together.

The result was the use of the dollar as a reserve currency, while the dollar was pegged to gold.

At the beginning of the 16th century, Magellan's voyage around the world was successful. Later, the colonies of western powers all over the world laid an early foundation for economic globalization.

The first industrial revolution refers to a productivity revolution marked by replacing manual labor with machine labor initiated from Britain in the 1760s. The first industrial revolution strengthened global ties, changed the structure of the world's industrial chain, and shook up the world's political and economic landscape.

From 1870 to 1914, the extensive application of electricity, the internal combustion engine, the creation of new means of transportation, the invention of new means of communication and other scientific and technological development made rapid progress, and was quickly applied to industrial production, greatly promoting the economic development. This was the second industrial revolution.

The two industrial revolutions provided the material and industrial basis for trade globalization.

With the world capitalist powers' scramble for colonies and the capitalist economic crisis gradually intensifying, two wars swept the whole world successively in 1914-1918 and 1939-1945. Although the two world wars brought profound disasters to mankind, they also indirectly promoted the global spread of science and technology, especially to the third world countries. After the war, the globalization of industrial production and industrial division of labor provided an opportunity for the globalization of trade.

The end of the second world war, that is, in July 1944, by the heads of the Allies economy in bretton woods, New Hampshire held an important meeting, discussed the post-war world economic and trade issues, in this time's historic meeting, participating countries through the international monetary fund agreement, decided to set up the international bank for reconstruction and development, is also the world bank and international monetary fund and a global trade organization.

In particular, the bretton woods system established the us dollar as the world's reserve currency. The dollar can be pegged directly to gold, while other currencies need to be pegged to the dollar and can exchange for gold at a certain price in the United States.

From 1945 to 1963, based on the bretton woods agreement, the relatively stable monetary system did bring great benefits to the western capitalist world. During this period, world trade increased rapidly, countries' economies recovered rapidly, and the United States also experienced rapid growth and prosperity after the war.

The bretton woods system was the first global monetary settlement system, before which trade was based on the gold standard.

The imf and the world bank are important financial legacies of the bretton woods system.

The focus of the bretton woods system, including the countries in the world currency by the dollar and gold exchange relationship, admitted that the dollar as the world's reserve currency, adjustable fixed exchange rate system and principles of international payment and settlement currencies, first make the liberalisation of trade in foreign exchange, capital and has the strong support of the international economic system.

The bretton woods system facilitated the global movement of industrial capital. The relative stability of international exchange rate facilitates the two-way flow of international capital, provides a convenient environment for countries to raise funds, promotes the progress of international financial industry and financial market, and creates favorable conditions for global industrial capital to build its own industrial chain.

The formation of the bretton woods system expanded world trade in line with historical conditions at that time. Through this economic system, the United States continuously distributed a large number of dollars to the world, stimulating worldwide consumer demand and expanding the world purchasing power level. The fixed exchange rate system, on the other hand, restrains the large fluctuations of the exchange rate of major currencies, making them relatively stable and controllable and conducive to the steady development of international trade. In the 23 years from 1950 to 1973, international trade increased from us $60 billion to us $574 billion, with an average annual growth rate of 10.3%. It can be seen that the bretton woods system provides very favorable conditions for promoting the expansion of world trade.

The dollar's peg to gold has given it a special status, increasing America's influence over the world economy. First of all, the United States through the issuance of money rather than using gold for external payment and capital export, conducive to the expansion and plunder of the United States. Second, the us cannot maintain its commitment to gold parity. If the United States could not maintain full confidence in the dollar, or if there was a crisis of confidence in the dollar, it would be difficult to maintain a fixed exchange rate between the dollar and gold when people asked for gold.

In this system, there is no currency that can be recognized by all countries as reserve, let alone support the development of international economy and trade for a long time.

Under the condition of fixed exchange rate, all countries except the United States will encounter the situation that they cannot use the exchange rate mechanism to adjust their payments effectively or are forced to form imported inflation, while the financial market of these countries is controlled and repossessed by the dollar in a disguised way.

In July 1971, US President Richard Nixon closed the "gold window" and announced the end of the fixed exchange rate between the us dollar and gold.

In the wave of de-dollarization, European countries successively adopted the exchange rate policy of "co-floating" and "separately floating" to the us dollar in 1973. Since then the floating exchange rate has entered the stage of history, and the exchange rate of a country's currency will change according to the changes of market supply and demand.

After the end of the bretton woods system, the dollar lost its status as the only international reserve currency, but it is still the most important international currency.

The dollar has used its political and military might to force the world's major powers to use it as the currency for international commodities such as oil. The urgent need for oil in the world's industrial countries and the emergence of petrodollars lead to the continued dominance of the us dollar in the international monetary reserve.

Before bretton woods, gold was the main currency of payment for world trade, but gold production was so small that neither as a reserve nor as a means of payment was sufficient to sustain the massive international trade of the industrial age. The appearance of paper money, as a kind of credit money, is completely different from metal money. The extremely low production cost enables the paper money to be issued and circulated in large quantities and provides another possible means of payment for large-scale international trade. Yet every country in the world has the right to issue its own paper currency and to determine its value. Productivity levels and social systems vary around the world, and currency exchange rates are highly volatile. A fragmented and unstable monetary system has limited world trade.

As the world's first systematically and relatively stable monetary system, in the specific historical period promoted the growth of world trade, industry, the globalization of capital flow to promote the industrialization of the world division of labor, division of labor of the industrialization of the world, in turn, further promoted the and expansion of world trade, directly promote the globalization of world economy.

Since the 18th century, human beings have experienced three industrial revolutions successively. The industrial application of advanced science and technology represented by electrical technology, communication technology and transportation technology in the second industrial revolution promoted the rapid development of economy. The third scientific and technological revolution is marked by major breakthroughs in the fields of nuclear energy, electronic computers, microelectronics, aerospace technology, and molecular biology. The three industrial revolutions were all led by science and technology.

The three industrial revolutions in the past two hundred years have brought about a leap in productivity in the major industrial countries of the west. They have produced more products than all the physical products produced by human beings two hundred years ago. Besides domestic consumption, of course, it flows to countries and regions with relatively backward productivity. Import raw materials from these countries, and then sell manufactured goods to these countries, so as to obtain excess income. In this process, the bretton woods system duly emerged, stabilized the international monetary settlement order, vigorously promoted the global expansion of industrial capital and the development of international trade, straightened out the international supply and demand relations, strengthened the international division of labor, and built the international commodity industry chain and international interest distribution relations.

Thus it can be seen that the fundamental cause of the emergence and development of international trade is the development of productive forces and the expansion of social division of labor. The development of productive forces and the expansion of social division of labor depend on the progress of science and technology.

With the continuous progress of global science and technology, the fourth industrial revolution represented by artificial intelligence, network communication technology and quantum technology is emerging, and the development of global productivity will usher in another leap, which will lead to the expansion of the scale and level of international trade. In order to adapt to the development of international trade, the new international monetary system will be formed at a faster pace, and the industrial division of labor will be further adjusted and strengthened.

When and how will the new international monetary system take shape? This is an accidental problem affecting globalization. Globalization may experience low tide or cause short-term regression. However, the long-term and overall trend of globalization is irreversible.

It is not surprising that the resurgence of isolationism and anti-globalization is associated with the emergence of a new trade order in a unity of opposites. The process of economic globalization can be summed up in a sentence: the future is bright, but the road is bound to be tortuous.

要想成绩好，英国论文得写好，51due代写平台为你提供英国留学资讯，专业辅导，还为你提供专业英国essay代写，paper代写，report代写，需要找论文代写的话快来联系我们51due工作客服QQ：800020041或者Wechat：Abby0900吧。

Essay代写：Cyberpunk culture

下面为大家整理一篇优秀的essay代写范文- Cyberpunk culture，供大家参考学习，这篇论文讨论了赛博朋克文化。赛博朋克作为一种反乌托邦文化，是近几十年来最为流行的一种科幻类型。赛博朋克在世界观的构造、文化内涵、视觉设定上，都前所未有超脱于其他科幻类型以外，将人类带入了一种全新的宇宙观、世界观。

As a dystopian culture, cyberpunk is the most popular sci-fi genre in recent decades. In terms of the construction, cultural connotation and visual setting of the world outlook, it is unprecedented beyond other science fiction types, bringing human beings into a new world outlook and outlook.

In post-industrial era, the 20th century, mankind has entered a lost of mechanical civilization and society and reflect on the new stage, in parallel, is the transcendence of digital vision technology development, the technological leap for the human society already deep, such as identity, environmental woes, such problems as the conflict between science and ethics has brought the possibility of an expression, beyond the emotion based on postmodernism, by Philip k. dick as the main representative, is based on the literature of science fiction writer, based on the present scientific and technological achievements as the cornerstone of the original cyberpunk culture on the transcendental imagination, Steampunk has replaced the mainstream status in the science fiction world and become the most popular science fiction image theme at present. The symbiotic visual culture system has also become the most popular trend.

The famous religious scholar Pyle tead DE chadin pointed out in his book "the miracle of man" that "the development from primitive life to human is a gradual evolutionary process, and human will develop to a highest end in the future and become some kind of god-like man. There is no direct evidence that the creative connotation of cyberpunk comes from this, but its spiritual core happens to coincide. When technology breaks through the cognitive ceiling, some of those in possession of the highest technological achievements gain god-like rights, such as eternal life and transforming the bodies and minds of others. Like the future version of the ancient Greek mythology, god and man look exactly the same, but live in the sky, master the fate of human beings on the earth, occasionally return to the earth to interact with human beings. Movies like blade runner, alita: battle angel, and TV series carbon are all based on this world architecture.

In such a world view, the question of the meaning of life becomes an important issue. Camus wrote at the beginning of the myth of Sisyphus: "there is only one serious philosophical problem, and that is suicide. To judge whether life is worth living is to answer the fundamental question of philosophy." Cyberpunk culture can be said to be based on the ultimate meaning of whether intelligent bodies should exist or not. Sisyphus because we have sinned against the gods, accept repeatedly throughout the course of pushing on the fate of the mountain, the ancient mythology and seemed to be the prediction of the future, or a bionic, physical or mental, under the burden of "god" give appointed or struggle, carry or relief, in cyberpunk "movie," god "is the irresistible force of science and technology and grasp the power of interest group or groups. "Contradiction" is at the core of all appearances. Camus said, "the first activity of the mind is to distinguish between true and false. But thought, when it reflects on itself, first discovers a contradiction." This core is embodied in blade runner 2049, which shows the mystery and debate about whether the main character "dirk" is a bionic man. In the matrix, the real world and the virtual world interweave and exist, and the definition of "real" becomes a big issue beyond the real existence itself. According to Russell in religion and science, "ethics is an attempt to make the collective desire of a group exert an influence on an individual, and the skill of the propagandist lies in the creation of feelings he believes in in others." This is also the center of confusion and resistance of the protagonists in cyberpunk culture. The visual system of cyberpunk is built on this spiritual theme.

From the original cyberpunk semantically speaking, cyberpunk for new vocabulary of cybernetics and punk, and before the old science fiction type steampunk photograph echo, "steam" or "cyber", is the science fiction world technical support structure, keep the punk cyberpunk "basic vocabulary, and steampunk, resistance and introspection is the science fiction world of emotional tone. Bruce Sterling described cyberpunk in this way: "treat people like rats, and all measures against rats can be applied equally to people. Closing your eyes and refusing to think doesn't make this horrible picture go away." Some of the best-known films and television productions include blade runner, ghost in the shell, the matrix, terminator 2, and alita: battle angel.

The director before the screening, blade runner 2049 whalen Newark in the face of the film what is the ultimate expression of this question, replied: "it is a beautiful sadness", it's understandable for all of the original cyberpunk colour fundamental key of film and television works, the tone is not only show the script content, also resort to the visual image itself. The theme of cyberpunk often revolves around the illusion of science and technology foundation such as artificial intelligence, super enterprise and large computer network, while the creators often base on the break of an old order. The dislocation of human relations and the loss of emotion are the inevitable result of the infinite power of science and technology. In blade runner, the boundless gray concrete forest, the tone of the sand all over the sky, without without repeating this kind of emotion lost. If the aesthetic construction of steampunk still retains some lace as if it were a twilight of human emotion, cyberpunk has completely abandoned the past. Man, as a creature, is thrown into a metal petri dish with no seams to be seen, and the decoration is omitted. "man" simply walks from one gray box to another. The polluted city of blade runner 2049, shrouded in a yellow haze, corresponds to the futuristic city full of 3D holographic advertisements. The black, white and gray tone of matrix is the same as the apocalyptic confusion of "people" in it.

Notable thing is that, in the vision of the future imagination, several important works are an important part of the film into the Oriental elements, such as the giant billboards in blade runner 2049 Japanese women, oiled paper umbrella in the hands of a pedestrian, "hacker empire" in the famous Chinese kung fu dodge bullets, "cloud" clone leaders in Asian faces, the ghost in the shell, imitate the geomorphic features of Hong Kong city setting. This may be due to the emphasis on multiculturalism of cyberpunk. On another level, it may be due to the mystery and gentleness of the east, or it may be the cold and hard neutralizer of future technology against the nature. Or is the imagination of eastern mysticism an antidote to humanity's inability to find its way through science and human relations? Or, the mixing of various cultural elements just coincides with the expression of surviving in the narrow slit in cyberpunk works and getting lost in the emotional experience.

As the most important science fiction style in "network science fiction", cyberpunk, with its strong philosophical reflection, unique visual tone and transcendent directing style, has become an important art genre leading the visual and humanistic trend of thought. Many phenomena and problems in aesthetics, sociology and philosophy are worth digging in different fields. From the perspective of visual research, cyberpunk continues steampunk's endless imagination of the future scientific world, breaks its visual limitations and brings it into a broader and mysterious field, providing unlimited possibilities for future visual creativity. At the same time, it also brings more questions, what is the marginal of science and technology, after breaking the traditional order from the inside out, whether people are still their natural appearance? This is a question of visual design and perhaps the ultimate philosophical question.

想要了解更多英国留学资讯或者需要英国代写，请关注51Due英国论文代写平台，51Due是一家专业的论文代写机构，专业辅导海外留学生的英文论文写作，主要业务有essay代写、paper代写、assignment代写。在这里，51Due致力于为留学生朋友提供高效优质的留学教育辅导服务，为广大留学生提升写作水平，帮助他们达成学业目标。如果您有essay代写需求，可以咨询我们的客服QQ：800020041。

51Due网站原创范文除特殊说明外一切图文著作权归51Due所有；未经51Due官方授权谢绝任何用途转载或刊发于媒体。如发生侵犯著作权现象，51Due保留一切法律追诉权。