Essay代写：Consumer credit

下面为大家整理一篇优秀的essay代写范文- Consumer credit，供大家参考学习，这篇论文讨论了消费信贷。消费信贷作为消费信用形式之一，是在买方市场的条件下，金融机构向消费者个人提供的用来满足其消费方面的货币需求的贷款，是市场经济条件下利用信贷手段促进消费品购销的重要方式。提供信用的债权人是商业银行，接受信用的债务人是个人消费者。消费信贷也是一种人为刺激个人消费需求、促进生产发展的手段，具有巨大的发展潜力。

As one of the forms of consumer credit, consumer credit is the loan provided by financial institutions to consumer individuals to meet their consumption monetary demand under the conditions of the buyer's market, and is an important way to promote the purchase and sale of consumer goods under the conditions of market economy. The creditor that offers credit is commercial bank, the debtor that accepts credit is individual consumer. Consumer credit, as a means to stimulate personal consumption demand and promote production development, has great development potential.

In early 1999, dai xianglong, governor of the people's bank of China, once again stressed that qualified commercial Banks would be allowed to pilot some new types of credit business, truly "promoting the growth of consumer demand as an important measure to promote economic growth". In response to the call, commercial Banks have provided more opportunities and choices for consumers in terms of the types and objects of consumer credit, interest rate, term and repayment method, etc. according to their own characteristics. For example, China construction bank is ready to link consumer credit with housing development. The bank of China focuses on the development and promotion of new types of businesses such as large consumer durables loans and education student loans. The agricultural bank is studying how to push consumer credit to the countryside. The bank of communications has established the personal consumption credit department, which is specialized in consumer credit business. It can be predicted that China's consumer credit business has a huge market prospect. How to strengthen the legal management of consumer credit has been put on the agenda.

To promote consumer credit business, Banks made some corresponding measures for the standardized management and services of these regulations and the service is not legally binding, of course, as a result, the commercial Banks to develop consumer credit business and individual citizens apply for consumer credit is still basically used "commercial bank law", "general" regulations on the loan contract and other relevant provisions of the laws and regulations. As a retail business of a bank, consumer credit has its own unique business rules. However, there is no specific laws and regulations in China on consumer credit to protect the rights and interests of consumers, sellers and financial institutions, resulting in many problems that cannot be ignored:

In order to promote their own products, the bank in order to promote their credit variety, often exaggerated advertising to lure consumers; some advertisements even create a feeling in consumers' minds that it would be a sin not to own a product now. Some advertisement name is not true, give consumer a kind of misdirect, waited to accept goods or service hind, just discover big go up its when. For example, there is an advertisement that says: "when you buy a residence in the garden of XXX in installments, you can have a piece of green land of 140 square meters". When a consumer buys a commercial house, he finds that the so-called "green land" in the advertisement is nothing but a fiction.

Because there are no special laws and regulations for the interest of consumer credit, the reimbursement means make a standard as well as the total cost of consumer credit, consumer consumption credit of commercial bank to provide the relevant conditions of whether don't know, and also there are few alternatives, consumers are often in a passive position, either passively accepting bank provide these conditions, or refused to accept consumer credit.

Housing, cars and other high-grade durable consumer goods consumption credit generally involves two contracts, namely the credit contract between Banks and borrowers as well as the sales contract between the borrower and sales business, some countries put the consumer loan was called restrictive loan, this form of consumer credit is the most common form of consumer credit. The relationship between these two contracts has not been stipulated by law in China, which has caused many problems and seriously affected the promotion of consumer credit, specifically in the following two aspects:

The consumer who applies for consumer credit thinks that there is a mutual restrictive relationship between the two contracts. On the other hand, if the consumer does not get a loan, he is under no obligation to take delivery of the goods or to pay the seller. However, financial institutions and sellers often proceed from their own interests, which leads to the inconsistency of the contract among Banks, borrowers and sellers. In the housing consumption credit, the consumers think that they must borrow money from the bank first, and then they can make housing payments to the real estate developers. And estate development business holds to hold to think, the client that can give buy a house only when the money of consumer own money and bank loan all arrive account hind can deal with property right card; The bank thinks consumer should deal with the mortgage of the house to register, wait for after mortgage contract becomes effective, ability makes loan to the client, but consumer does not get house property right card before cannot deal with mortgage to register, do not get loan thereby. This cycle still haunts consumers, commercial Banks and vendors.

That is, whether the non-performance of one contract or the performance of non-compliance with the contract, will inevitably affect the performance of another contract. In the practice of consumer credit in China, once the performance of a credit contract or a sales contract fails to conform to the contract, it will affect the performance of another contract in most cases. Typical cases occur mainly in the installment purchase of commercial housing or other high-end durable goods. For example, if the quality of commodity houses or other high-end durable consumer goods purchased by consumers does not conform to the contract, a lot of consumers will refuse to continue repayment in installments to the bank, resulting in the loss of the bank's interests. Or if the bank fails to provide the agreed payment to the consumer in accordance with the credit contract, the consumer will refuse to fulfill his obligations in the sales contract, resulting in the loss of the seller's interests.

Consumption credit is debt consumption, debt is a credit relationship. In the process of start the consumption credit in our country, has yet to establish the personal credit system, mainly manifested in two aspects: one is not a natural person's identity, individual account, source of income, personal can be used for mortgage assets, and to evaluate the past credit conditions, and so on and so forth and investigation system, no family property registration system, personal bankruptcy system, less personal credit status professional credit rating accrediting agencies; Second, the income of residents has not been fully monetized, and the lending institutions can not calculate and verify the actual income level of residents. Therefore, consumer credit institutions cannot understand the credit of residents, which is not conducive to the development of consumer credit, and it is necessary to strengthen the legislation of consumer credit system.

Consumer loans often require consumers to provide guarantee, but the current "guarantee law" and relevant laws and regulations on guarantee, only the production credit norms, resulting in difficult operation of consumer credit in guarantee. There are four ways to guarantee the consumer credit of housing, automobile and other durable consumer goods, namely mortgage, pledge, guarantee and mortgage plus guarantee. Among these ways, the most convenient and fast to handle at present, and the most frequently used one is pledge. The borrower should give the loan bank the deposit slip that the face value that oneself or other people signs to agree or not is not less than loan total amount or Treasury bill and so on negotiable securities serve as pledge, sign "loan contract" and "pledge contract" with loan bank, pay the first period payment of 20% above commodity price that buys, can do formalities at the soonest two days. However, if the owners of the securities are in urgent need of funds, it cannot be solved under the existing guarantee laws and regulations. The most complicated procedure is to apply for consumer loan by means of mortgage, for example, by using house property as mortgage, involving the mortgage registration of house, value assessment, notarization and other means. On the one hand, the cycle is long; on the other hand, consumers have to bear certain costs, such as attorney fees, evaluation fees, notary fees, etc., which increases the burden of consumers. In addition, proof of ownership of property that consumers can use as collateral is still very limited. In practice, it is even more difficult to operate the guarantee method of selecting a third party as a guarantor. First, it is difficult to find a guarantor. The number of natural persons who meet the guarantee conditions is extremely limited. Will tell from another Angle, now unit undertakes personnel system reform, personnel fluidity increases, unit is a lot of worker are recruit, although formal worker also is faced with be laid off triage, unit if offer assure for the worker, be about to assume quite big risk, so the unit is unwilling to make assure for the worker. In addition, the poor law enforcement environment of guarantee is also a very thorny issue. For example, if the borrower fails to repay the mortgage on schedule, it is very difficult to enforce the mortgage, and the poor handling may cause a small range of social shocks.

According to statistics, China now has 150 million people enjoying pension and medical insurance benefits, accounting for only 12% of the total population. That is to say, 88% of China's people are responsible for their health and safety. Take shenzhen for instance, the number that joins endowment insurance of primary insurance, society medical treatment to be sure occupies shenzhen only 14% and 12%, add the insurance business that the insurance company of other company nature handles, the population rate that enters social security system is very small still. With the change of industrial structure, many uncertain factors have appeared in the employment situation of residents. If it is impossible to provide residents with stronger living security and social security, the space of consumer credit extension will be very limited. At present, China does not have a unified legal system of social security, such as pension, disease and unemployment, and some of the regulations that have been issued are not authoritative because of their low level of legislation, which greatly impedes the promotion of consumer credit.

Consumer credit has become very common in western developed countries. There are corresponding laws and regulations to regulate every process and link of consumer credit, advertising of consumer credit, conclusion of contract, content of contract, performance of contract, breach of contract and handling of responsibility. Then there is government control. Drawing on the experience of western developed countries in developing consumer credit over the past 100 years, China has established and improved relevant laws and regulations, promoted supporting reforms, and created a favorable legal environment for the development of consumer credit business.

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Assignment代写：American factors that affect global investment markets

下面为大家整理一篇优秀的assignment代写范文- American factors that affect global investment markets，供大家参考学习，这篇论文讨论了影响全球投资市场的美国因素。投资市场本质上是一个经济资源配置权分割和处置权取得的市场，具有国别和市场属性的差异，不同的国家、经济组织和个人投资者都希望从中取得利益。美国因其全球经济权重和国家战略问题，其政策导向对投资市场影响是巨大的，在涉及到重要经济资源的纷争、地缘政治不稳定时，更是如此，并导致资本市场、货币市场和期货市场及衍生工具市场形成相应的风险溢价和风险损失。

The United States is the richest country in the world, with a GDP of more than 10 trillion dollars, accounting for one-third of the world's GDP. The United States is a major global consumer of resources, accounting for a quarter of the world's total energy consumption and oil consumption. Besides energy, the United States is also in the forefront of the consumption of many important economic resources. The United States has about $2 trillion in international trade, more than 20 percent of global trade that year. So the United States became the world's economic engine. At the same time, the us dollar is the measurement and settlement currency of international trade and settlement and international investment.

The United States is a unique country. Its political, economic and financial policy guidance and policy means, as well as the weight of its social production, global economic resource consumption, international trade volume and weight, and the international monetary status of the us dollar have made its impact beyond the mainland of the United States and have a worldwide impact.

As a result, there are two roles for the world's investment markets: the President of the United States and the chairman of the federal reserve.

In the United States, the President is not only the representative and spokesman of national image, but also the advocate and executor of major national administration, security and economic policy orientation. As a result, the President's impact on the economy and investment markets is significant.

In the United States, the chairman of the federal reserve is known as the czar of the American economy and the world economy. This is because, the chairman of the federal reserve in the money supply, interest rates, exchange rates, prices, economic growth, full employment, to defend the dollar international monetary status and financial risk prevention, etc., have an important responsibility and has a certain policy tools selection and implementation of the initiative, is the mastermind of a promote financial reform and innovation, cooperate with the President's economic strategy.

Under the guidance of regional industrial division, globalization, economic resource allocation, international trade and investment market integration, the influence of the President of the United States and the chairman of the federal reserve extends beyond the United States and exerts significant influence on major global investment markets, forming corresponding investment opportunities and investment risks. Therefore, the economic policy orientation of American President and federal reserve chairman is a unique perspective to analyze the development trend of global investment market.

In September 2001, the United States was shocked by the events of 9/11. After 9/11, the United States launched the war on terror with a preemptive strategy, and carried out and launched wars in Afghanistan and Iraq.

In during this period, as the us-led coalition forces in Afghanistan and Iraq, some local organizations, called a terrorist organization by the United States, in Europe, southeast Asia, launched a terrorist attacks in Pakistan and other regions, as well as use of kidnap hostage event, the differentiation of coalition forces in Iraq, military alliance, damp down the u.s.-led coalition in Iraq's momentum, rock part in national troops Iraq's confidence. The anti-American forces in Iraq, after the us-led coalition entered Iraq, continuously attacked the coalition, causing heavy casualties to the coalition. So much so that President bush is frustrated with his war on terror, which he says is a long war.

In the process of the evolution of these events, the security problems of the United States also has always been imminent, set up the department of homeland security did not stop to adjust domestic intelligence and security agencies, yellow and orange early warning signal light up from time to time, not only make people feel the United States is no longer as before to be safe and comfortable, also led to a serious American homeland security and global security issues of budget cost increases, causing a series of economic problems.

Economic problem path vicissitude and current restrict element. Reagan moved into the White House in the early 1980s. In order to curb the impact of gold on the dollar and soaring prices, the Reagan administration adopted policies such as raising interest rates and tightening monetary policy to curb social demand and curb price rises.

At the same time, in order to reduce the Keynesian monetary bubble formed by active fiscal and monetary policy impact on the real economy, promoting financial innovation, financial controls, currency, open futures and derivatives markets, allow the banking, insurance, social security and other short-term capital in the form of various funds into the stock market, currency and bond markets, construct virtual capital market monetary bubble, reduce the impact on the real economy. Opening up the gold futures market, allowing the federal reserve bank of the United States or other financial institutions to carry out gold lease and repurchase business, expanding the short-term gold market supply, promoting the market to form the investment expectation of lower gold price to restrain the rise of gold price, further driving down the price of gold, the international monetary status of the dollar was rescued once again.

Reagan's two terms in office have contributed a lot to the economic responsibility of the President. After the transition of President George h.w. bush, Clinton's term has achieved remarkable results.

After Clinton entered the White House, on the one hand, she inherited the achievements of the previous President's economic governance; on the other hand, she made full use of the loose supply environment of economic resources brought about by the collapse of the former Soviet union and made use of the advantages of the United States in electronics, information and network to build a new channel for the allocation of economic resources in the United States. As a result, the economic achievements of the Clinton years, the rapid economic growth, the inflation shadow gone, the dollar against the major currency appreciation, the stock market soaring, brought the people a strong illusion of wealth. Over the same period, the federal budget of the United States appeared to be in surplus, creating a miracle in American fiscal history in recent decades. In the later stage of the Clinton administration, new economic concepts were introduced, which blew the new economic bubble to the edge of bursting, and also pushed the scale of the development of American money market, capital market and futures market to the extreme, and the feast would be dispersed.

When George w. bush entered the White House, the new economic bubble burst, and the us economy and economic resource allocation capacity were unable to continue. On September 11, 2001, in the aftermath of the fateful 9/11 attacks, the dollar began to fall against major currencies. In early 2002, when the euro entered circulation, the international monetary system emerged as a counterweight to the dollar. Under the pressure of counterterrorism and the defense of monetary status, the President's economic responsibilities have suffered unprecedented hardship, with a record increase in the trade deficit and the federal budget deficit.

At the right time, the most important economic resource in modern society -- oil production capacity reached the limit of demand, and the oil price even reached a record high. At the same time, Britain, a strategic ally of the United States and an important oil exporter, became a net oil importer, an important oil producing region in the Middle East and a Caspian sea oil producing region became complicated by the conflict of civilizations due to anti-terrorism, and the supply of oil, the most important economic resource in modern society, became unstable. America's oil reserves, measured by consumption, are less than ten years old and have to launch a global strategy to address concerns about long-term supplies.

As a result, the President of the United States faces a problem of economic resources, including oil. Moreover, with the bursting of the new economic bubble, the reservoir of idle capital constructed in the Reagan era was in danger of spilling out into the real economy in the face of the surging stock. With upward pressure on oil prices on prices, capital markets falling and the dollar falling against major currencies continuing, that danger is gradually being released and the fed chairman must shoulder the burden.

After the non-monetization of gold, the status of the federal reserve in the social economy and financial operation rose abruptly, and it became the responsibility of the federal reserve to regulate money supply, regulate interest rates, expand employment, balance international payments, and promote and maintain economic growth. The chairman of the federal reserve as the decision maker and image of the federal reserve, the function of the federal reserve also placed on the chairman's shoulders.

After the 1980s, in order to cope with the monetary bubble generated by the active fiscal policies and monetary policies after the New Deal of Roosevelt, the us government authorities implemented financial innovation and constructed the reservoir of monetary bubble to save the international monetary status of the us dollar and to cope with the impact of the monetary bubble on the real economy. As a result, the domestic currency market, securities market, futures market, gold market and derivative investment instruments in the United States have been booming, hot capital diversion into the field of virtual capital market has eased the impact on the real economy, gold price has fallen, inflation rate has fallen, and the international monetary status of the us dollar has been saved. Since then, the cycle of production, circulation, division and allocation of American social economy has entered a virtuous track.

In this evolution, the fed's position has improved. At the same time, with the huge trade deficit and the growth of overseas investment, the foreign dollar holdings in the United States have risen sharply. The foreign dollar is participating in the domestic investment market together with domestic capital, and the influence of the monetary and financial policy regulation by the federal reserve is no longer a problem in the United States. As a result, the federal reserve chairman's us and global economic position gradually established.

In the United States, the role of the chairman of the federal reserve is also important because the President of the United States undertakes the strategic issues of national economic resource allocation strategy and national security, and the micro-level issues of economic operation and economic and financial policy adjustment, which are placed on the shoulders of the President of the federal reserve. There is a division of professional functions and strategies between the President of the United States and the President of the federal reserve.

In particular, after the 1980s, the chairman of the federal reserve pushed forward financial reform and innovation in the aspects of money supply, interest rate, exchange rate, price, economic growth, full employment, protection of the international monetary status of the us dollar and prevention of financial risks. For example, following the implementation of President Reagan's economic strategy after the 1980s, the price of gold was quickly subdued, the impact of gold on the dollar was restrained, the international monetary status of the dollar was defended, and the accumulation mechanism of hot money formed by financial innovation laid the foundation for the economic growth of the United States in the following two decades. In addition, the federal reserve also successfully solved the financial crisis in 1987 by using financial policy tools and operational tools, alleviated the pressure of financial risks after the bursting of the new economic bubble, and saved the investment confidence of financial markets near the collapse after 9/11.

Of course, the current chairman of the federal reserve has an important job to take on: controlling prices after the rise of oil prices, controlling financial risks after the bursting of the new economic bubble, and maintaining the international monetary status of the us dollar.

Current factors that affect and constrain fed chair economic decisions. As the President's partner in office, how the current President deals with microeconomic problems is a problem the fed chairman must shoulder. The first is the exchange rate and prices of the dollar, and the second is likely to face again the problem of liquidity in the early 1980s.

To clearly explain the history and reality of the us dollar exchange rate, some problems in the nature of currency must be clarified. The credit - money system that is now in vogue in the world has evolved from physical money. The dollar also evolved from its link to gold.

In essence, the us dollar exchange rate is the exchange rate of the us dollar against other currencies. In the field of credit currency, if the U.S. dollar has a significant trend of depreciation against other currencies or the value of the U.S. dollar is unstable, the dollar holding institutions or individuals outside the United States will reduce or give up the amount of holding the U.S. dollar. A weak dollar, on the other hand, would reduce the ability of the greenback to divide and allocate resources abroad. America's post-world war ii reliance on this capacity will be challenged, and the country's socio-economic model and economic resource balance model will be adjusted. At the same time, if the us dollar exchange rate is significantly reduced again, the price of basic economic resources in usd will rise again, which will aggravate the pressure of its price rise and further promote the decline of the us dollar exchange rate.

So even after the collapse of the bretton woods system in the 1970s, the chairman of the federal reserve worked with his President's economic strategy of stabilizing the dollar and its international currency status.

The United States is a country with the largest consumption of basic economic resources, among which the consumption of energy and oil occupies an important position in the weight of basic economic resources. Therefore, over a period of more than half a century, the price stability of the United States is closely related to the oil price, and the inflation and economic stagflation of the United States in the early 1970s and 1980s are closely related to the price of oil. The price of oil has risen 400 per cent from its low point since the turn of the new century. In turn, the new economic bubble has burst and financial scandals at some companies have hit financial markets hard.

With the rapid growth of capital stock and the drastic fluctuation of capital flow, the social function of capital accumulation will appear decreasing trend. Under the influence of related factors, hot money may overflow and impact the real economy. In the past two years, the oil-dominated international resource raw materials market has suffered from the impact of hot money, and the sharp price fluctuations have shown the seriousness of this problem.

After the turn of the century, with the burst of the new economic bubble and the implementation of the anti-terrorism strategy after the outbreak of 9/11, effective economic measures such as tax cuts and interest rate cuts have been almost exhausted. The technical means of financial policy to save the dollar exchange rate and restrain prices -- raising interest rates -- will promote the adjustment of capital market and promote the overflow of idle capital, impact the real economy and hedge its policy effect. Without higher interest rates, the dollar and prices will be hard to control as the twin deficits continue to grow.

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Leadership Essay的写作要点

Leadership Essay是一类体现领导力的论文，是商科专业招生时重点考察的东西，所以对申请者格外重要。通过Leadership Essay，学校可以知道同学们以往的经历和行为，了解大家的能力和性格等，从而判断是否有领导的潜力。下面就给大家讲解一下Leadership Essay的写作要点

1. Leadership Essay最忌讳什么

经常见到的关于leadership essays的写法就是，在文章的开始，交代困难1，2，3；把困难描述的很大很大；然后接着再用一段，说我做了4，5，6，就解决了前面那1，2，3的困难。让我觉得这个故事的主人公就像个神，或者奥特曼。他一出手，世界就和平了。

这样的文章让我读来很不真实，也很无趣。我觉得这个是leadership essay最忌讳的东西。当然，前提是你文章描述的故事是真正的leadership。那么leadership essay该怎么做？

2. Leadership Essay应该一波三折

是的！Leadership Essay应该一波三折。其实你前面的困难1，2，3；和后面的actions 4，5，6都没有白写，只要把他们打乱下顺序；再增加个之间的递进关系，一篇核心的leadership essay就搞定了。为什么要一波三折？！因为要增加故事的可读性，让你的文章，以至写文章的这个applicant都变得interesting起来。这样，Adcom的人才愿意在众多的文章中选中你的，给你面试机会，想进一步看看这到底是个什么样的人。怎么样一波三折？！在写作的过程中，你可以把自己想象成一个电影的编剧。比如，一个superman和一个evil决斗，evil很坏（困难点1），superman费了很多血才把evil打倒在地（action1）；眼看着胜利在望，又出现了天外来客，evil的帮凶（困难点2），superman不得已掏出自己的兵器（action2），打退了evil和帮凶；别人都以为superman这时迎来的应该是鲜花和掌声，但恰恰相反，大家都误会他破坏花花草草（困难点3），于是superman就开始使用各种各样的技巧persuade大家（action3），最后得到了荣誉好市民称号（achievement）。至此，故事就结束了！是不是比起将困难点和actions累积的方式，显得精彩的多啊？！

3. Leadership Essay的制高点

Leadership Essay其实很好写，因为就是讲故事。但如果说有一点最难写的，那就是最后的ending，你对leadership的理解 -- Leadership Essay的“制高点”。你对leadership的定义和总结，才是体现你的高度和深度的地方。

以上就是关于Leadership Essay的写作要点，Leadership Essay其实真的不难，只要大家在写作的时候注意这些要点，那么就没问题了。

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Paper代写：Transfer of credit assets

本篇paper代写- Transfer of credit assets讨论了信贷资产转让。银行同业信贷资产转让业务是指银行与其他金融同业之间买卖一笔或者一组信贷资产的业务，其转让对象仅限于同业机构，包括商业银行、信托公司和财务公司等，可以接受非金融机构为信贷资产转让提供担保，转让标的仅限于同业金融机构向非金融机构提供的信贷资产，不包括金融同业的各类权益性资产，转让方式包括有一次性买断和回购。一般而言，信贷资产转让是对金融市场的深度利用。本篇paper代写由51due代写平台整理，供大家参考阅读。

Generally speaking, the autonomous transaction must satisfy both parties' pursuit and division of the "consumer surplus" generated after the change of market conditions. From the perspective of foreign financial development, bank credit asset transfer is based on such a basic logic, which started in the 1970s and became popular in the 1990s. In the scope of counterparty, the range of Banks extended to Banks and non-financial institutions. Recently, the transfer of credit assets was advanced to a new stage through the securitization of credit assets. With the advancement of commercialization, Chinese Banks began to pursue and carve up the "consumer surplus" in the transfer of credit assets, and all the business of credit asset transfer was in form the same as that of western credit asset transfer. However, through a period of practice, we find that the credit asset transfer business in China has presented a distinct picture from that in foreign countries, and even dissimilated into a tool to evade regulation. Based on the purpose of further promoting Chinese financial innovation on the basis of norms, this paper considers the following questions: what is the basis of credit asset transfer? What is the underlying cause of the different picture of China's asset transfer business? What lessons should Chinese regulators draw?

Interbank credit asset transfer business refers to the business of buying and selling a credit asset or a group of credit assets between a bank and other financial peers. The objects of transfer are limited to inter-bank institutions, including commercial Banks, trust companies, financial companies, financial leasing companies, asset management companies, etc., and non-financial institutions can provide guarantee for the transfer of credit assets. The transfer of the subject matter is limited to the credit assets provided to non-financial institutions by the inter-bank financial institutions, excluding the various equity assets of the inter-bank financial institutions; The transfer includes a one-time buyout and a buyback.

In general, the transfer of credit assets is a deep use of financial markets. According to modern financial theory, the bank is an institution that produces financial products. The essence of the bank's credit business is the process in which the bank produces financial products and collects service fees from individuals and institutions in the society by transferring the right to use funds. Since the essence of the credit business is only the temporary transfer of the right to use the funds, the bank has partial control over the credit financial products, such as the loan contract, so as to guarantee the right to use the funds when the loan is due. Therefore, the result of the bank's credit business is that the lender has obtained the temporary right to use the funds, and the bank has obtained the mark of credit financial products -- the credit contract that guarantees the recovery of the funds and the payment of service fees.

From the latest development of economics, as long as two subjects have different subjective evaluation of the same commodity at the same time, there will be trading space, and it may bring "consumer surplus" for both parties. In this view, as long as different commercial Banks have different evaluation of the same credit or a group of credit products, they also have the power to transfer credit contracts. And causes of different subjective evaluation of the same credit contracts has such kinds roughly: one is due to a certain point, different bank faced the liquidity needs of constraint, and the liquidity demand often for hard constraints, so part of the bank in order to obtain liquidity, will reduce the already paid out but did not expire can't recover the credit assets evaluation, and improve the subjective evaluation of cash assets. Second, at some point, different Banks need to adjust the distribution structure of credit contracts for risk diversification. For the same credit asset or A group of credit assets, it may be the project that needs to be increased for bank A, but for bank B, it may be the project that needs to be reduced. In this way, there will also be differences in the subjective evaluation of the same credit asset or a group of credit assets. Third, the risk preference of different bank owners and operators has changed relatively. For example, due to the changes in capital structure and other reasons, bank A's risk tolerance decreases, and their evaluation of the risky credit asset contract decreases. On the contrary, A bank B may improve its subjective evaluation of the contract. In particular, due to the adjustment of development strategy and different evaluation of national economic situation, industrial development trend and enterprise development trend, it is almost impossible for different Banks to have completely consistent subjective evaluation of the same credit asset contract. Because of the difference of subjective evaluation, there must be "consumer surplus". As long as the cost of the transaction is lower than this "consumer surplus", we can be sure that as a profit-maximising bank, the transaction of this type of credit contract will be done. The strong evidence is that, with the development of information technology, the transaction cost has been greatly reduced, and the trading of financial derivatives has been increasing at an unusually high speed.

From the above theoretical analysis, we can find that in a perfect financial market, the fundamental purpose of Banks' participation in the transaction of credit contracts is to obtain the "consumer surplus" generated by different Banks' subjective evaluation of the same credit contracts, which is a clear profit-seeking behavior. But if we look closely at interbank lending in China, we see a very different picture.

In the second half of 2002, the central bank of China began to approve inter-bank credit asset transfer business. In fact, in the first half of 2002, some Banks were already secretly carrying out such business. However, as far as the current situation is concerned, the credit asset transfer business of some commercial Banks in China presents the following three main features. Second, the transfer of credit assets are short term; Third, the credit asset transfer agreement is often reached in the days before or even the day before commercial Banks report non-on-site regulatory information. In fact, it is these three characteristics that determine that China's commercial bank credit asset transfer has a completely different meaning from the general sense of credit asset transfer. If extreme, it can even be considered that the credit asset transfer business of some commercial Banks in China is not a normal profit-seeking behavior, but a tool to evade regulation.

If the Banks based on the above off-site regulatory data, to the relevant bank regulatory conclusion, the development of regulatory strategy, that may lead to serious problems. Fortunately, the current regulatory authorities have a variety of information collection channels, as well as a strong field supervision method, and initially established a mechanism and structure of continuous supervision. To some extent, the above information can be identified. However, because the remediation cost is relatively high and the regulatory authority is restricted by the regulatory resources and the regulatory cost, it can not be completely cleaned up. Therefore, to some extent, commercial Banks can cover up their business information and evade regulation through this legal method. Therefore, in a certain sense, China's credit asset transfer business does not have the positive function of credit asset transfer in developed financial markets, but on the contrary, it is alienated as a legitimate tool to evade regulation.

At present, China is facing the urgent process of increasing financial opening to the outside world. At the same time, the situation requires the regulatory authorities to encourage China's banking industry to strengthen innovation and improve its competitiveness. So, in the face of this alienation, we cannot stop with a one-size-fits-all approach. But this cannot be ignored. An in-depth analysis of the financial environment and the right "prescription" are the best choices. Through analysis, we can find a very important conclusion: under the current financial system environment and market environment in China, there is not enough "consumer surplus" for commercial Banks to obtain in the credit asset transfer business, and the evasion of regulation has become the fundamental driving force of credit asset transfer.

From the perspective of financial basic system environment, the incentive and restraint mechanism of commercial Banks has obvious short-term nature. For both state-owned Banks and joint-stock commercial Banks, on the one hand, bank operators are under pressure to seek short-term benefits from their owners, such as the pressure of increasing state revenue and the pressure of Stockholders' annual dividends. On the other hand, the government and enterprises are not completely separated in a fundamental sense. Although the phenomenon of government intervention in finance has improved significantly in recent years, it still exists to some extent. In some cases, bank operators should consider some special requirements of the government in the current period. However, these requirements of the government are not necessarily completely consistent with the long-term operation strategy of the bank in the time track, and sometimes even obviously reversed. Moreover, up to now, there is no banker market in the standard sense in China. The operators of Banks are not subject to market constraints, and their access and price are not determined by the market. Especially in the process of economic market transition, financial regulations and regulatory framework are under constant drastic changes. It is difficult for bank operators to form long-term expectations, so it is difficult for their behaviors to be long-term. In the basic background of short-duration behavior, the behavior of bank operators will undergo obvious changes, which is reflected in the fact that they do not care about the long-term development of the bank, but pay special attention to the position of the bank in the industry and the judgment of regulators, as well as the annual profit of the bank. We can predict that Banks will take full advantage of policies that improve these indicators; On the contrary, Banks will try to avoid policies that worsen these indicators. From the perspective of the financial market environment, there is not much difference in the subjective evaluation of the same credit asset or a group of credit assets among different commercial Banks in China at present. Naturally, the possibility of obtaining the credit contract "consumer surplus" through the transfer of credit asset is not great.

First, there is no marketization of interest rate in China, and the fluctuation range of interest rate is not much different. This limits the ability of each bank to make full use of their comparative advantages of managing different assets and making profits. Therefore, different commercial Banks in China have little difference in the pricing of the same or a group of credit assets. Price controls have led to the dissipation of consumer surplus "rents", which may be illustrated in another way.

Second, risk assessment is extensive with little difference. Banks lack the capacity to make profits from specialized management of a certain type of assets. Due to various reasons, China's banking industry is still in the stage of "horse racing and enclosure", and Banks are still operating with expanding market share as the core. The deep improvement of credit asset management ability and the intensification and refinement of bank operation have not been raised to the due agenda. For risk management, the core is only to cope with the supervision of the regulatory authorities, and to eliminate the external constraints imposed by the regulatory authorities on the development of the bank caused by excessive risks. The intrinsic motivation to strengthen risk management is obviously insufficient for the long-term healthy development of the bank. In this way, the Banks are more extensive about risk management. Outstanding performance is that the loan risk classification is relatively loose and there is no special independent risk management committee. Some risk management departments are more focused on the liquidation of non-performing loans rather than the comprehensive risk management of all credit assets. Due to the extensive risk management, Banks do not have too many fundamental differences in the risk evaluation of the same credit asset or a type of credit asset. Naturally, they do not have too many differences in the evaluation of this asset. Of course, there is no room for risk pricing in which they would benefit from taking on the transaction costs of these asset transfers. From this point on, it can be seen that if the fundamental situation of China's banking industry operation does not change, even if the interest rate liberalization becomes a reality, we cannot expect the transfer of credit assets in the standard sense to occur smoothly.

Third, China's economic development stage and economic pattern have contributed to the homogeneity of bank operation strategy and hindered the efforts of Banks to implement differentiated management of credit assets. The diversification and differentiation of Chinese Banks can be said to be the dream of regulators. To this end, the regulatory authorities have also paid great efforts. But the reality is not ideal. A typical example is that local joint-stock commercial Banks are struggling to break through regional restrictions and become national commercial Banks. City commercial bank is going all out to become a joint-stock commercial bank; The city credit union is seeking to become an urban commercial bank. Financial differentiation has not become the pursuit of commercial Banks. Instead, it is becoming a fashion and goal for commercial Banks to expand their sphere of influence and acquire all possible customer resources. As a result, every bank in our country is trying to do all the banking business, while all the Banks are in the same business field in a brutal "fight." As a result, the personalized services between Banks, differentiated services have become the service of the "fight to kill" tool. Of course, this is not irrational. Because, China's per capita GDP is still around $1,000, and in the context of the widening income gap, the potential customers who can provide profit space for financial services are relatively concentrated. At present, the enterprise credit investigation system is not complete, and the personal credit investigation system is relatively missing, which further increases the risk and cost of financial services. So Banks are trying to compete with each other for the same high-end customers, and business is converging. Unfortunately, this behavior in line with individual rationality reduces the comprehensive competitiveness of China's banking industry on the one hand, and on the other hand weakens the efforts of Banks to truly carry out differentiated services. The logical conclusion here, of course, is that a bank will not voluntarily sell a class of good credit assets or accept a class of risky bad credit assets without additional compensation.

In a word, Chinese Banks use asset transfer business to modify off-site indicators and legally evade supervision, which is the core meaning of bank credit asset transfer business. When the regulator approved the operation, it was expected that Banks would optimize their portfolio of assets, improve their liquidity and improve their professional operation and management.

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Essay代写：The network bank

下面为大家整理一篇优秀的essay代写范文- The network bank，供大家参考学习，这篇论文讨论了网络银行。自世界第一家网络银行开业以来，国际金融界掀起了一股网络银行风潮。这一金融创新正在彻底改变金融业和金融市场的形态，银行由实体化向虚拟化发展，金融服务的时空界限不再明显。网络银行在拓宽银行范围、提高金融效率的同时，也以其特殊的经营形式及风险特征，对传统的银行业监管提出了挑战。

It is a strategic goal for the development of China's financial industry to make use of the latest scientific and technological achievements, to establish the basis of the latest computer and communication technologies, to transform the backward banking operations in China, and to realize the electronic and networked finance. March 6, 1998; Bank of China provided online banking services to customers for the first time, and it was the first bank in China to offer online banking services. Subsequently, China merchants bank in shenzhen special zone also launched online banking services, and users could enjoy shopping and other financial services through online banking. By the end of 2001, more than 50 Chinese Banks had set up websites on the Internet, accounting for 27 percent of all existing Chinese Banks. Among them, all branches of citic industrial bank and shenzhen development bank have opened online banking, with the opening rate reaching 100%. Others: huaxia bank is 8896, construction bank is 33% and guangfa bank is 25%. By the end of 2001, online banking customers of domestic commercial Banks reached 1.66 million, with 9.01 million transactions, and the transaction amount was 234.46 billion yuan.

At present, the operation of network banking generally has three modes: one is the online banking which is completely based on the Internet. For example, America first network bank; the second is to establish an independent organization or department to operate the online banking business on the basis of traditional Banks. Third, we should allocate corresponding human and financial resources to expand the traditional banking business and innovative varieties to the Internet. At present, China's online banking mainly adopts the second mode. The third mode has not yet appeared online banking in a complete sense, that is to say, China's online banking business is still in the preliminary stage.

At present, China has established a separate supervision system for the banking, securities and insurance industries. As far as Banks are concerned, the people's bank has become the main body. The supervision system is based on the internal supervision of commercial Banks and supplemented by social supervision, but with the emergence and rapid development of network Banks. The connotation and mode of banking supervision are facing challenges.

Network bank is a high-tech and intelligent bank, and its impact on the traditional banking supervision platform is multifaceted. First, it destabilises financial markets. The development of network banking has not only changed the way Banks contact customers, but also changed the traditional way of banking services. Product promotion and transaction processing. This series of changes directly or indirectly accelerated the velocity of money circulation, the issuance and creation of electronic money, and the potential risk of financial market rise. Stability decreased. Second, challenge the regional regulatory model. Internet banking service is based on global customer service object, compared to traditional Banks, it is beyond the limits of set by branch and form of the service object area. And this is the competition of small and large Banks and further promote the integration of the global financial created the conditions, but also increased the difficulty of regulation, especially the impact on the regulation of the people's bank of China's regional model. Thirdly, relying on the Internet and computers, the network bank is not simply a transfer of existing banking services to the Internet. It is a product of the combination of financial innovation and technological innovation, and a new form of industrial organization and banking system. In April 2000, the people's bank of China issued "interim measures for online banking management", the requirements on a regular basis to the people's bank branches and regulatory departments and statistics departments to submit the online banking statistics of the basic situation, timely report to the regulatory authorities occurred in the process of online banking business events, these are off-site management means, to achieve the purpose of regulation in a timely manner. Even if they can be followed and supervised, they need a group of highly qualified managers and advanced technical equipment. It should be said that the regulatory authorities still have a big gap with the actual requirements. Therefore, on April 11, 2002, the "working group on the development and supervision of online banking" of the people's bank of China was formally established to adapt to the new regulatory situation.

The development of network technology breaks the professional division of traditional finance and blurs the boundary between banking industry, securities industry and insurance industry. Banks not only provide traditional banking services such as deposit, deposit, loan and settlement, but also provide investment, insurance and consultation. Comprehensive and all-round financial services such as financial derivatives. In particular, Banks can provide customers with "AAA" services that transcend time and space, depending on the needs of the market and customers. In this way, e-commerce not only overcomes the time and space limitations of traditional Banks, but also realizes the "cross-selling" of banking, securities and insurance businesses. This is not only a challenge to China's traditional banking business, but also the impact of the current separation of business management model.

Network Banks should not only face all kinds of risks of traditional banking industry, but also face network operation risks and technical risks of network software and hardware, and the latter will become the main risk form of network Banks in the short term. At present, the impact is mainly shown in three aspects: first, the risk evaluation system of commercial Banks is impacted, and the risk of traditional banking industry is mainly credit risk. Liquidity risk and interest rate risk, its internal risk control system is also built around these risks, such as the asset-liability ratio management system clearly stipulated and implemented by the people's bank law and the commercial bank law. The interim measures on the management of online banking business also stresses that "the existing risk supervision requirements of the people's bank of China for traditional banking business are still applicable for online banking business", but they fail to include operational risk into the risk evaluation system, so that the application of "proportional management" by commercial Banks cannot fully reflect their risk status. Second, network software and hardware technology risk. Network electronic trading requires a high degree of hardware and software to the network, the security and stability of the system is especially demanding, but from the actual situation, due to the "fragmented" on the hardware and software, for the branches system in our country under the outlets of the large Banks, on the one hand, can cause the waste of resources, on the other hand also the transactional risk due to system compatibility. Third, the impact on the original operating procedures. The original operating procedures are mainly the "face-to-face" banking service and business audit system, while the network Banks provide the "point-to-point", "interactive" remote service system, not only the operating procedures have significantly changed, but also the customer base has exceeded the regional or even the national limit. This new operating discipline will focus on at least two changes: on the one hand, operational technical enhancements; on the other, potential risks. On the other hand, the credibility of customers is difficult to identify effectively, which is also an important factor leading to the increase of operational risk.

In the traditional way to trade have legal effectiveness, signature of the original contract how to application in the electronic media, such as how to regulate the network bank provide virtual financial service, how to evaluate the service quality of the network bank, with the use of the network bank for financial crime behavior how to punish and sanctions, disputes occur in the form of electronic evidence after how to accepted by the court is in the operation of the network bank and problems to be solved. On 14 June 1996, the United Nations commission on international trade law adopted the model law on electronic commerce at its 29th annual session. The bill allows both parties to electronically transmit information, sign sales contracts and transfer ownership of goods, thus making previously unenforceable data messages as legally recognized as written documents. The global and national commercial electronic signatures act of June 2000, which came into effect in October 2000, provides a legal basis for the legality of electronic signatures for online transactions. Article 11 of the new contract law, which came into effect in October 1995, stipulates that "the written form refers to the form in which the contents of the contract, letter and data message can be physically represented". Although the new contract law recognizes the legal effect of electronic contracts, it still fails to solve the legitimacy problem of electronic signature that online Banks need to solve, and fails to clarify such issues as the definition of legal liability for disputes arising from the breakpoint in the transmission of information. At present, most of the rules adopted by China's network Banks are protocols without special laws and regulations. Therefore, when problems occur, they are usually resolved through arbitration. All this adds to the risk of online transactions between Banks and customers.

The people's bank of China should speed up the construction of information management system. According to the requirements of the "interim measures for online banking management", the commercial bank shall establish online banking information management system, the people's bank of China to dock with the commercial Banks to take this opportunity to develop information management system, the people's bank of China to deal with the network business of commercial Banks have a "key" regulation, namely the online wholesale business of commercial Banks give tracking supervision, for the retail business focuses on the developing direction of change. We will establish a unified regulatory model that focuses on the people's bank and serves the world. From the situation of foreign countries, "mixed operation" is the development trend, especially the development of network Banks will greatly speed up the process of "mixed operation" in China. Network bank currency form is electronic currency, it replaces the traditional cash and cheque payment tools such as, speed up the velocity of the Banks' capital, reduced the transaction cost, improve the operational efficiency of the capital, but the financial risk is due to the complexity of electronic currency circulation link and trading object generalized factors such as increased, especially the trading object generalized - with global customers as the service object, service species diversity and homogeneity, regulators are faced with the risk of escape controls. Innovative regulatory approaches. Traditional regulation may lead to the failure of effective implementation of online banking. Comprehensive supervision. Therefore, as a financial supervision authority, in addition to formulating targeted management methods, it should also speed up the pace of its own electronic construction and implement off-site monitoring by relying on advanced scientific and technological means to constantly adapt to new situations and new problems in financial supervision. While strengthening the management of market access, exit and market operation of network Banks, the CBRC should highlight the guidance of network banking business, help commercial Banks to constantly improve the self-discipline mechanism of the industry, and enable China's network banking business to develop in a better market environment.

We should fully consider the risks of online banking and strengthen the construction of an internal risk management system for commercial Banks. The unique operational risk and liquidity risk of network Banks should be an important part of the internal control system of commercial Banks. In this regard, appropriate risk weight can be designed according to the latest framework of Basel accord and the actual situation of China and the operational risk can be included in the risk evaluation system of commercial Banks for assessment. Build a solid operating platform. The stable operation platform is the guarantee for the safe operation of the bank, which mainly includes safety measures and internal communication. Make contingency plans, etc. The most prominent is how to strengthen and implement security measures. Security measures mainly include firewall, encryption, digital authentication and virus control, which are the guarantee for the safe operation of the system. In the short term, commercial Banks are required to increase investment. In the long term, commercial Banks should work closely with software suppliers. The key is the regular test and audit of the network operation system. In addition, improving the quality of employees should be implemented as a rolling system project.

In order to have a standard and clear legal environment for the development of network Banks, the CBRC and the legislature should pay close attention to the development of network Banks and their adverse effects on the financial industry. We will introduce relevant laws and regulations to maintain the safe operation of online Banks. For now, we should focus on two aspects of construction. On the one hand, it clearly defines the rights and obligations of all parties in electronic transactions to standardize and legalize the operation and safety management of security measures. The network bank is the electronic, the informationization product, it has provided the strong technical safeguard for the commercial bank's service innovation, has expanded the commercial bank's service space. In this regard, when the central bank regulates network Banks, it cannot ask them to cut their feet and apply the existing standards of supervision and regulation to conduct new business. Instead, it should take the initiative to study new situations and problems, adjust the monitoring rules and promote the healthy development of network Banks with the system. On the other hand, we will step up efforts to combat cyber crimes and safeguard the security of financial markets. Drawing on the practices of developed countries, we will formulate a special law to provide necessary legal guarantees for severely punishing criminals in accordance with the law by enhancing its pertinence, systematicness and operability. At the same time, China should strengthen communication and consultation with Interpol as well as the financial and judicial departments of all countries in the world, and formulate international treaties to jointly combat cyber financial crimes and control financial industry risk responsibility, so as to ensure the healthy development of China's cyber Banks.

We will improve the technical level of online finance and intensify the training of technical personnel. China's banking industry should speed up the introduction and development of advanced network technology. We will vigorously develop the three core technologies of online banking: Web technology, service platform technology, and security and confidentiality technology. In terms of hardware, we should strive to develop powerful servers, automatic teller machines with fingerprint identification function, smart money clips that can be written, and other advanced equipment. In terms of software, great efforts should be made to develop network security system, voice authentication system, electronic transfer system, smart card recognition system, management information system and other software system integration. On the one hand, China's banking industry must further increase investment in network technology introduction and research and development, and seize the commanding heights of new economy and new technology as soon as possible. On the other hand, we should actively cultivate high-quality talents to meet the development needs of network Banks. Among them, the most needed talents are senior management talents with strategic vision, science and technology talents with financial knowledge and strong mathematical and financial analysis ability. The construction of network bank needs a group of interdisciplinary high-level technical and managerial talents who not only master the computer science, network technology and communication technology, but also master the financial practice and management knowledge. Major commercial Banks should focus on the future and seriously consider the training channels and methods for these talents, so as to accumulate strength for enhancing the competitiveness of China's network Banks.

As the capital of network Banks grows larger and faster, higher requirements have been put forward for the coordination of national regulatory authorities. This requires our financial regulatory agencies to carry out frequent exchanges of information with foreign financial regulatory authorities, exchange network regulatory measures and strengthen regulatory cooperation.

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