下面为大家整理一篇优秀的paper代写范文- The Poverty，供大家参考学习，这篇论文讨论了贫困的问题。贫困主要是指物质的匮乏，这也是由于资源分配不均、生产力不发达等原因造成的，即使是在世界上最发达的地区，仍然存在着贫困。贫穷是一个社会问题，也是所有人的社会责任，必须由大家一起努力去解决。贫困又分为绝对贫困和相对贫困。绝对贫困是指人们由于收入不足而无法负担基本生活必需品和日常生活费用。相对贫困则是指人们的收入明显低于社会平均水平的情况。在英国这样的发达国家，绝对贫困是罕见的，但相对贫困的问题仍有待解决。
Introduction
Poverty mainly refers to material deprivation, which is caused by various reasons such as unequal distribution of resources, underdeveloped productivity etc. Even in the most developed regions in the world, there is still the existence of poverty. Poverty is a social problem but also a social responsibility for all individuals which must be solved by all of us. In order to mobilize the attention of the international community on poverty issues, in 1992, the 47th United Nations General Assembly countries set the 17 October as International Day for the Eradication of Poverty, it is aimed to take concrete action to help the poor. (United Nation) The universal issue of poverty has raised much attention and requires effective measurements in both developing and developed countries. However, due to the different developing levels in countries, the policies should be made according to the practical situations in different countries.
The concept of poverty is divided into two main categories: absolute poverty and relative poverty. Absolute poverty refers to the situation that people are not able to afford fundamental necessities and daily life expense, i.e. food and housing, due to insufficient income (Jean C., Mireille, 2003). The other type of poverty, relative poverty, refers to the situation when the people’s income is significantly below the average value of the society (Lawrence, 2012). It is rare to see absolute poverty in a developed country, such as UK, but the issue of relative poverty remains to be solved. As for developing countries, both absolute poverty and relative poverty exist.
http://www.51due.net/writing/research-paper/sample32489.html
Poverty reduction policies in developed countries
The poverty reduction policies are usually made according to the economic condition in the country. For developed nations, such as UK, France, German etc., the poverty reduction policies focus on several points that not only promote economic growth, but also increase people’s benefits. This section mainly introduces poverty reduction policies in developed countries and discusses its merits and disadvantages (Christiaensen et al., 2011).
In order to reduce relative poverty in a developed country, the basic method is to obtain sustained economic growth, which involves both internal actions and external measurements. To be more specific, within the country, the increase in total income and more occupations generated can both bring about the rise in individual income, as well as the redistribution of total income. For more than a hundred years, scholars believe that the prosperity and growth in national economy to be an effective and a major factor contributing to poverty reduction, and this argument was strongly supported by the facts during pre-war Britain, that the poverty in UK was improved to a large extent due to economic growth. From a global perspective, the increase in trade exchanges between nations can also improve national economy. However, in addition to increasing individual income, the sustained economic growth may deteriorate the phenomenon of relative poverty to some extent, since it is particularly beneficial to the higher-skilled and wealthy group in the society. From a global perspective, the increase in trade exchanges between nations can also improve national economy (Rosenfeld, 2010). On one hand, more frequent trade exchange accelerates currency speed of goods and products, which promotes productivity, industrial development, technology etc. The flourishing social development of these aspects effectively result in more global trades, which finally brings about the growth within the country (Haggblade & Hazell, 2010). On the other hand, international trades also create more job vacancies, i.e. the demands for translators fluent in both France and German in labor market. The rising needs for talents and employees also helps to reduce national poverty, by means of solving the issue of unemployment and improving individual life quality.
In general, economic growth in developed countries can reduce relative poverty by eliminating income inequality as much as possible, which is mainly reflected in four aspects. First of all, lower wages can increase fast than higher wages, and the minimum wage has been increased with the rise in average wages,which rises the average wage and narrows the inequality gap. In the second place, with stable economic growth, a variety of government benefits increases in line with rising average wages, i.e. the benefits for the sickness and the unemployed. Last but not least, it has been mentioned that more vacant occupations are generated as a result of the economic growth, which in turn solves the issue about unemployment to some extent. On the other hand, economic growth is also not likely to reduce income inequality and solve the problem of relative poverty. First and foremost, the development in the UK in recent years has witnessed faster wages growth for high skill-required occupations than unskilled jobs. This indicates that the higher wages enjoy higher increase, which widens the inequality gap. In addition, in the context and structure of modern economy, a diversity of work forms has been created. However, the presence of part time jobs or the occupations in flexible service sectors lags the average earning wages. Since the average wages in a society is an important indicator of the extent of relative poverty, the emergence of flexible work sectors is inevitable but worsens the situation of relative poverty. Thirdly, despite the government benefits, economic inflation may also be generated at the same time, which indicates that the benefit incomes have lagged behind the average earning wages. In a word, the issue about unemployment cannot be solved from the root by economic growth. It is still necessary to increase the number of high skilled employees and international trades, in order to finally reduce poverty (Jones & Corbridge, 2010).
The government in developed countries has realized that the issue about unemployment is the major cause for national poverty, due to the low income and reliance of government benefits. Therefore, poverty reduction policies concerning unemployment are made from both aspects: supply and demand. With regard to demand side policies, it mainly reduces unemployment cause by economic recession, which is also known as demand-deficient unemployment. As for supply side policies, it focuses on the reduction of structural unemployment, which is also known as the natural rate of unemployment. There are six major policies to reduce unemployment. To begin with, for a majority of developed countries, they implement monetary policy, which mainly for cutting interest rates, in order to boost AD. Lower interest rates means less borrowing cost, which promotes more individual investments and spending. Accompanying with lower interest rates, the exchange rate would also be reduced, which makes the trades between nations more competitive. Additionally, they also cut taxes to boost AD, by applying fiscal policy in the country. It is a demand side policy that is effective and essential in the emergence of economic recession, and it arises cyclical unemployment. By reducing taxes and rising government expense, fiscal policy helps to increase aggregate demand as well as the speed of economic growth. The reduction in government taxes improves disposable income, which as a result promotes overall consumption and in turn contributes to higher aggregate demand. Take a case of firm for instance: when the firm has increased its productivity, it tends to have a higher demand for workers and lower demand-deficient unemployment. Moreover, when the economic growth can be kept steadily and strongly, along with higher aggregate demand, there would be a significant reduction in the number of firms that go bankrupt, which means fewer job losses in the market. The first two poverty reduction policies are proposed from demand side, and the following policies are based on the supply side.
Supply side policies are made to solve the problem regarding micro economy. It has nothing to do with aggregate demand (AD), but aims to overcome imperfections in the labor market mainly by improving the quality of labor and thus reduce unemployment of three types: frictional unemployment, structural unemployment and classical (real wage) unemployment. In the third place, a variety of government policies regarding free obligation education have been implemented, as well as the policies concerning skill training, with the purpose of reducing structural unemployment. For a long term development, the unemployed are able to find a suitable job in developing industries if they are equipped with new skills. For instance, a steel worker can be transferred to a position in service sector if he/she has some knowledge for information technology or computer. Fourthly, the policy of geographical subsides aims to assist enterprises to overcome some depressed situations. This policy is not likely to be adopted in many organizations due to its high expense and complicated process. The employers can simply replace current workers with the long-term unemployed, so as to obtain benefits from tax breaks. Another policy is to reduce the power and influence of trade unions and solve the issue about real wage unemployment, which is cause the higher bargain of trade unions for wages above the average level. And last but not least, the policy of encouraging flexible working arrangement in the labor market enables employers to hire more qualified employees and provide more job vacancies.
Apart from the poverty reduction policies of reducing unemployment, another policy is mainly to increase benefits to the poor in developed countries, since the poor may only take up a small proportion of the population. The policies mainly include the aspects of increasing welfare benefits on people with low incomes, such as providing more convenience to universal tax credit or adding child benefit. Such means tested benefits make government financial support target to those who are in most need, and they are normally cheaper than universal benefits, which to a large extent reduces the burden on tax payers. But such policies may not be so effective to be adopted by people since they are stigmatised and regarded as being poor. Besides, when he/she is able to acquire a job with higher payment, some of the benefits would be lost and more taxes should be paid. This phenomenon is known as “the benefit trap” or “the poverty trap”, which happens due to the fright of losing benefits and paying higher taxes (Spenceley &Meyer, 2012). For people with low incomes, this poverty reduction somehow discourages them to work extra hours or obtain higher payments by changing a job, because most of them don't want to risking the loss of benefits. Another governmental policy to reduce poverty is to increase the national minimum wage, which is an effective method to increase the incomes of low payment. This narrows the gap in wage inequality and therefore, reduces poverty. Additionally, in many developed countries, there are several free public services with regard to education and health care which are set for people’s benefits. The policies of promoting free education enables the children from low-income families to obtain knowledge, attend school, gain degree and skills, which provides them qualifications to find a better occupation with high incomes. This can help those who were in poverty to get rid of the original situation of being poor and make effort for earnings, careers and families, which poses a positive effect on sustainable development of the society (Griggs et al., 2013).
Poverty reduction policies in developing countries
This section introduces poverty reduction policies in developing countries. The policies presented in this section mainly covers the following aspects: economic development, education construction, aid and assistances from developed countries (i.e. more trades between nations) as well as the diversification of economy.
Economic development in developing countries refers to the improvement in economic welfare, reflected by higher real GDP and other economic indicators. These improvements finally strengthen national infrastructure, improve health and care standards and reduce poverty. Generally, poverty reductions concerning economic development involve the improvements on macro-economic conditions, i.e. low inflation and positive economic growth, free market supply side policies as well as government interventionist supply side policies (Zulu&Richardson, 2013). These are similar to the discussion above: economy growth policies for developed countries. However, when it comes to developing countries, it is necessary to identify the weakened aspects that should be most focused and improved, so as to reduce poverty. The issues in developing countries, different from developed countries, are export oriented development and the transition between agriculture to manufacturing economy. To begin with, macro-economic stability refers to the low inflation in the market, which attracts more foreign investments in the developing country. On the contrary, there are fewer possibilities for the foreigners to invest in that country due to high inflations that resulting in devaluation in currency. As a consequence, in order to increase international investments and trading, it is suggestable for developing countries to build a low inflationary framework to obtain continuous economic growth, so as to reduce poverty, with the support of the following policies(Montalvo & Ravallion, 2010). The first is to have an effective monetary policy, such as giving a Central Bank permission to take control of national inflation. The second is to have a disciplined fiscal policy for developing countries, which usually refers to the avoidance of large budget deficits. However, during the process of pursuing low inflation, the lower economic growth may be conflicted with the increase in interest rate, or in some situations, the low inflation framework is successfully built at the cost of recession or even serious unemployment issues, thus generates more obstacles to economic development and increase poverty. Therefore, it is of necessity to implement low inflation policies with the combination of achieving sustainable and stable economic growth (Naudé, 2013). Also, there are policies to reduce government budget deficits, although it may include spending cuts on social welfare programs.
Apart from the policies about controlling inflation, another policy is to haveless restrictive regulation and effective corruption dealing methods. For some developing countries, the reason for holding back economic development is due to over-restrictive regulation towards national trades systems and international trades. This severely limits the trade and exchange between nations, which slows down the speed of its development. In order to attract more domestic and inward investment, along with keeping sustainable development, the policies of useful regulations such as protection of environment, and the removal of unnecessary are implemented to construct business(Ghosh, 2010).
Another policy to reduce poverty by guaranteeing economic development is to build a reasonable and effective tax structure and tax collection system in the nation. It has been generally acknowledged that an effective tax structure and collection system in a developing country can promote economic development and guarantee economic growth. If the government fails to collect sufficient tax from the rich, it is not possible to have adequate funds to cover routine expense and operate the construction of public sectors. Besides, this also broadens the gap between the poor and the rich, which causes more severe poverty issues. So a health and complete tax system in developing countries can effectively keep a diversity of national developments, which in the end is able to solve the issue of poverty from many perspectives.
The policies above introduced in this section are to improve national economy in different ways, such as taxes, inflation control etc. The following poverty reduction policies are concerning education and international support. For education construction, the policies are to increase the expense on education and training, which helps to build higher skilled workforce. This policy is similar to that in developed countries (Fan& Rosegrant, 2016). As for seeking assistances from developed countries, the poverty reduction policies focus on attracting international trade and building good relationships with foreign countries. The former, international trade, i.e. foreign investments, can bring about economic development in that developing country. And the good relationships with other developed or more developer countries can guarantee financial loan and support when necessary.
Connections between poverty reduction policies governance and development
According to Altinay (2010), global governance refers to the administration and management of multi-national challenges when there is a lack of a world government. Joseph (2012) states that various kinds of rule-making systems and different ways of political coordination, as well as a diversity of policy-making methods, result in the needs for both national governance and global governance. This section analyzes the relationship among governance (national and global, 2003), development and poverty reduction policies.
In terms of demand side policies for poverty reduction in developed countries, the first introduced above, monetary policy not only increase economic development and economic growth, but also adds international trades between nations, as well as the trades within nations. From the aspect of boosting international trades, it highly requires the governmental control over taxes, trade policies and other aspects in order to guarantee the performance of international trades (MacLachlan et al., 2017). For fiscal policies in developed countries that aims to reduce poverty by minimizing unemployment, it has close connections with economic development and governance in the country. For one thing, this policy may have time lags between the proposal of the policy and its implementation, as well as the time lags caused by long process of decision making in the government. For example, it may take long time from making a decision about increasing government expense to finally seeing the effect of the decision on increasing aggregate demands. The governance process and efficiency takes control of the performance and effectiveness of the policy. In addition, expansionary fiscal policy has a requirement for higher government borrowing, which under most circumstances, is not likely to happen in the nations with many debts, and this also rises bond yields (Sylvia, 2011). So the government of debts also affect the poverty reduction policy. In terms of economic development, when the national economy approaches full capacity, the rising aggregate demand can only have a negative effect on economy: inflation, which result in worse poverty issues. The connections between governance, policies and development is quite obvious to seen in fiscal poverty. The policy of cultivating workers with several skills require the long-term support of the government. The governance of education and training determines the teaching quality on workers, thus affects whether the worker is capable of handling the job. As a consequence, the unemployment rate is influenced by governance, which decides whether the policy can be effectively implemented to reduce poverty. As for the policy of reducing power of trades unions, the issue of real wage unemployment can be solved if the requirements of trades unions are under strict governance and inspection, so as to lower the unemployment rate and reduce poverty. For the policy of employment subsides, it would be more practical if the government is able to provide more financial support for the enterprises, which also necessarily requires effective and reasonable governance on distributing finance to the companies. Currently, the improvement in labor market flexibility is positively supported by the government, and it also brings about more occupations and higher demands in labor market (Satterthwaite &Mitlin, 2013). However, governance of wage standards for part-time workers should maximize the benefits of employees. In a word, the poverty reduction policies mentioned in this paragraph are implemented to solve the issue about unemployment. This process requires effective governance and inspection from the government or relevant sectors. And for some policies, economic growth or national development also affects performance of the policy.
From the perspective of increasing benefits for the poor, as mentioned above, the poverty reduction policies may generate poverty trap and affect the overall effectiveness. In order to avoid such phenomena, the government should strength their governance ability and control. For example, the government can call off an immediate cut off point by grading benefits. Moreover, strict governance should be used to identify the qualifications and limitation of being considered as the poor (Alkire & Seth, 2015). And some relatively poor are likely to fall outside the limit. Additionally, the effective implementation of this policy requires the governance of dealing applications and distributing means tested benefits. In previous days, government preferred universal benefits since it requires less governance over the issues mentioned above, however, as a result of some demographic factors, there are more demands in current economic developments for means tested benefits to effectively reduce poverty, which highly needs governance measurements. As for the policy of increasing the national minimum wage, it needs to cooperate with the governance of financial support to firms. If the firm cannot afford the increasing total payment, the issue of unemployment can be worse. But with the help of monopsony power of organizational governance, it would be able to afford higher wages and thus, implement this poverty reduction policy better (Hatta, 2013).
The content above is mainly regarding the connections between governance, policies and development in developed countries, which is slightly different and is likely to require different types of governance and development support when it comes to the connections in developing countries (Karnani, 2016).
The seeking of assistance from developed countries requires international cooperation. As a matter of fact, the introduction of global partnership for development not only reflects the relationship between governance, policies and development, but is also effective to creating economic growths in both developed and developing countries, mainly by increasing international trades (Shaw et al., 2007). It is beneficial to whole world by developing a further and open, rule-based, predictable, non-discriminatory trading and financial system. For example, good governance, development and poverty reduction are their objectives too. To meet the special needs of least developed countries such as not implementing quota system to their exports and exports are exempted from duties. For those heavily indebted countries, the nation introduced the debt relief program and cancelled their official mutual debt. Except from relieve their debt issues, more generous official development assistance for countries committed to poverty reduction will be provided.
From a global perspective, by implementation of Millennium Development Goals, for the global development, in recent years, 14% more duty free exports have been admitted from developing to developed countries. What’s more, the network of content and applications has been linked to more people in 2015 due to the internet penetration.
The World Bank and International monetary fund (IMF) has undertaken the Structural Adjustment program since 1950s. Structural Adjustment loan is the loan designed to help borrowers overcome imbalances between macroeconomics and international payments during economic development. The specific approach is to provide borrowers quick-disbursing loan to support the country's macro-economic on departmental restructure. Structural Adjustment loan is not used to build specific projects to improve the level of output but directly to policy adjustment and institutional reform as the goal. The applicants of adjustment loans must meet specific economic requirements and meanwhile, borrowing countries are required to implement World Bank-approved structural adjustment programs. (Structural Adjustment program, 2006) After that, they need to make commitments on trade policy, price policy, fiscal and taxation policy, investment plan, capital mobilization, institutional reform and other aspects of the adjustment.
In contrast, this program also deepens poverty around the world. IMF and world bank takes few measures to control the politics and economy of borrowing countries by reducing government expenditure, privatization, exploiting foreign investment, etc. (Eric & Denise, 1995; Michel, 1995) IMF exploits the Third World and to achieve the domination through lending out debt. In order to repay debt, the borrowing countries need to borrow money from the IMF, and the IMF list out all the into the unfair conditions to exploit them. Borrowing countries will get the IMF / WB loans and also get commercial bank loans when they accept the offer. If they refuse to accept it, they will be exempted from borrowing, and it will become difficult to get assistance from other international institutions. (Eric & Denise, 1995; Michel, 1995; Patrick, 2007) Acceptance of these conditions has led to a collapse of the economy, since the debt cannot be used for investment, and allocation of resources are needed to applied on imports from developed region. It is often caused by stagnant domestic economy, trade deficit and debt. The IMF's plan is initially aimed to help the underdeveloped nations to promote trade surpluses to pay off debts. However, the result is totally opposite towards their aim. The result is considered to be a way to solve the debt crisis lead to more debt. The policies created by creditors and the IMF / WB are destroying the opportunity of economic recovery in underdeveloped regions and the debts run up forever.
Conclusion
From the introduction and analysis above, we've learnt that poverty has become a global issue in both developing and developed countries. Current poverty reduction policies have been effectively implemented all over the world. For underdeveloped countries, such policies mainly focus on seeking financial assistance from developed countries and construction and infrastructure of economy development. On the other hand, in developed countries, poverty reduction policies emphasize on keeping the stable economic growth, lowering unemployment rate and cultivation of more skilled workers. At the same time, in order to make people not rely on welfare and financial assistance, the best way is to improve their ability to survive, and therefore considering from the allocation of social resources, investment in education, improvement on healthcare service become the countries' active core welfare policy.
From the analysis of relationship between governance, policies and development, it is obvious that national governance of policy control and inspection guarantees the implementation of these policies, and the development of the country also determines the extent to which the policies are carried out. From a global level, several programs operated by IMF effectively support implementations of policies. Poverty rate has been reduced significantly in recent decades by the support of international organization, drawbacks exist at the same time. International institution should make good use of their power to implement policies in order to give assistance to underdeveloped regions.
想要了解更多英国留学资讯或者需要论文代写，请关注51Due英国论文代写平台，51Due是一家专业的论文代写机构，专业辅导海外留学生的英文论文写作，主要业务有essay代写、paper代写、assignment代写。在这里，51Due致力于为留学生朋友提供高效优质的留学教育辅导服务，为广大留学生提升写作水平，帮助他们达成学业目标。如果您有paper代写需求，可以咨询我们的客服QQ：800020041。
51Due网站原创范文除特殊说明外一切图文著作权归51Due所有；未经51Due官方授权谢绝任何用途转载或刊发于媒体。如发生侵犯著作权现象，51Due保留一切法律追诉权。
