北美作业代写：Offshore finance

下面为大家整理一篇优秀的essay代写范文- Offshore finance，供大家参考学习，这篇论文讨论了离岸金融。离岸金融发展到今天，已形成全球地理分布和较完整的发展模式，根据其在不同发展阶段的不同发展形态，离岸金融已经成为一种制度创新的概念。总的来说，离岸金融就是在高度发达的金融自由化及金融全球化的环境下，在本国金融体系之外不受本国金融法规约束的，面对非居民的资金融通。

In the first phase, starting in the early 1950s, the most primitive form of offshore finance was in the form of European dollars. As the us and the DPRK the outbreak of the war, the United States to freeze the Soviet union in the United States all the deposits in dollars, in order to avoid economic losses and political blow, the Soviet union in the continent's Banks to open us dollar account for crops, industrial equipment and other goods settlement, form the eurodollar market, at the same time to enter the bud of offshore financial market.

In the second stage, from the late 1950s to the late 1960s, the offshore financial market expanded from the European dollar to the European mark, the European franc and the European pound. In this stage, the us, due to a series of government interventions, has created the resistance of currency circulation, which makes money flow from the domestic market with poor liquidity to the offshore market with loose environment. At the same time, European countries have experienced inflation, and governments have launched a series of policies to reduce the impact of currency weakness and reduce the amount of currency in circulation. In the face of the measures taken by various countries, the German mark, Swiss franc and British pound entered the European currency market, which diversified the European financial market and promoted the development of the international offshore financial market.

The third stage, the late 1960 s to 70 s, the definition of offshore finance broader, "oil money" at the same time, the offshore financial markets from Europe to expand to other continents. Outbreak of "oil crisis" in the early 70 s, European countries have fall into the predicament of the balance of payments imbalances, a large number of commercial bank deposits and direct investment in European countries form the circulation of capital, through the European monetary market into the United States and Europe, formed "petrodollars. At the same time, the U.S. government has lifted restrictions on Banks' cross-border operations and promoted the formation of several different types of offshore financial centers in Europe, Asia and the Caribbean. Singapore's emergence as Asia's offshore financial centre marks the formation of the Asian dollar. Since then, China's Hong Kong, Manila and other regions have also taken measures to open offshore financial services. Another breakthrough in the development of offshore financial market in this period was the formation and development of separate and bookmarked offshore financial centers for tax avoidance, which further activated the international offshore financial market.

The fourth stage, after the 1980 s, the rapid development of offshore financial market at this time the meaning of offshore financial break through the geographical category of offshore financial centres, become a kind of system which influence the development of domestic and international financial markets. In order to consolidate and improve the status of the international financial center, the United States established international banking facilities in the United States in 1981, which pioneered offshore financial transactions on land. Since then, sets up the international banking facilities in Tokyo in Japan, Tokyo offshore financial market officially running in 1986 marked the offshore financial business to break through the confine of offshore financial centers nationwide to Japan extension.

Offshore finance since form development, has formed the global distribution and the development of a complete pattern, according to its different development stages of different development form, it can be seen that the offshore finance is not only a development at the beginning of the scope of a geographical concept, but become a concept of system innovation. Summarizes the development of offshore finance, offshore finance can be summarized as: the definition of the highly developed financial liberalization and financial globalization environment, outside of the country's financial system is not affected by the country's financial regulatory constraints, in the face of a non-resident financing.

From the above about the narrative in the evolution of the offshore financial concepts, it can be seen that the offshore financial market from a regional concept for the development of a global financial system, it embodies the change of system. Institutional economists system is defined as to establish a series of social production, exchange and distribution, economic rules, these rules are part of for mandatory rules, set in the form of law, proportion is not big; And another is in the social changes gradually evolved a more prescriptive rules, the members of the community play a spontaneous daily political and economic life, the rules of the rules of the society as a whole accounted for bigger, impact is bigger also.

Coase is the concept of "transaction cost" and "the marginal analysis method" is introduced into the institutional economics, makes the analysis and research of the institutional economics into the new stage, can be more intuitive to explain the whole social economic system evolution. When a country's financial system arrangement is marginal revenue and marginal cost of inequality, the financial system to produce the non-balanced state, at each main body in the financial system will change the status quo to make maximum profit or minimum cost motive, prompting the change of the old system in order to achieve the balance of the new system. At the same time, the institutional change theory of noss and schulz also makes the system an important factor influencing the optimal allocation of resources. Although the system is an internal factor in the operation of an economic system, it has external influence, and the root of which is that the system structure cannot adapt to the development of the economic society at that time.

Some scholars point out that, in essence, the initial form of offshore finance, the European dollar, was not necessary. It is precisely because a country has too strict control over its financial institutions that it severely restricts the liquidity demand of its financial institutions for its own currency. And restrictions on foreign financial institutions using local currency, or the country's financial institutions to use foreign currency control relatively loose, makes a country use foreign currency for international settlement, foreign exchange hedge or multinational investment and financing of the credit business and other business can be done by the foreign issuers of financial institutions, to avoid the country government's strict control, to achieve optimum financial resource configuration. Eurodollar is, therefore, of being under the function of supply and demand, and the dollar has quickly become international settlement unit is also due to its loose control of the financial system in the United States, due to the international financial regulatory asymmetry.

After that, some scholars further quantified the institutional factors, and set an indicator -- net regulatory burden, including three variables: the reserve ratio of a country's commercial Banks; The rate of interest, dividend and other capital gains of a country; A country requires disclosure of financial data such as interest and dividend. These three variables are positively related to NRB, and the higher the three variables are, the higher the NRB is. Through the quantitative analysis of several international financial centers at that time, it was concluded that London had the lowest NRB index, so as to conclude that the European dollar market first appeared in London. The use of this index system to produce and development of offshore financial market has carried on the quantitative analysis, further illustrate the importance of institutional evolution of financial market, also expounds the well offshore finance is a systematic concept.

In addition, the emergence and development of offshore finance is also a process of system innovation. "Innovation" concept first put forward by schumpeter: innovation is a new kind of factors of production or a new combination is introduced into the production process of production conditions or both, to produce the product of transcendence or improve production efficiency. This innovation is broad in scope, not only refers to the organizational innovation involving technical change, but also includes the non-technical change. Appearance and development of offshore financial innovation is an interactive mechanism and system, system innovation to adapt to changing market demand, the market for a better way of dealing with institutional change, will also take the appropriate measures to innovate. This kind of institutional innovation is driving the whole social economy forward.

The development of offshore finance is of great significance to China's economic field. As a result of the above analysis of the system, only the promotion significance of the system is discussed. The development of offshore finance is an innovation of the system and also reflects the improvement of the system. Financial system and economic development are affected by the relationship of mutual restraint and promotion. On the one hand, from the micro sense, break through the traditional offshore financial market regions, departments, institutional constraints, through the flexible transfer of capital, the local capital markets and more efficient to combine with the international capital market, to achieve the optimal allocation of financial resources. Financial institutions as a micro main body of the market, not only can make full use of capital, realize the maximization of the interests of the active market, more can use offshore business in line with the international market, to achieve international operation, promote the internationalization of RMB. On the other hand, from a macro sense, in the process of development of offshore financial, build a more perfect financial system, make its constantly to meet the requirements of economic development and implementation of financial institutions, financial service innovation at the same time, promote innovation of China's financial system, perfecting the market economy system in our country.

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Assignment代写：State capitalism

下面为大家整理一篇优秀的assignment代写范文- State capitalism，供大家参考学习，这篇论文讨论了国家资本主义。国家资本主义是一种经济形式或经济成分，而并非一种发展模式。作为一种经济形式，国家资本主义在资本主义社会和社会主义社会都存在。但资本主义制度中的国家资本主义和社会主义制度中的国家资本主义具有不同的内容。资本主义制度中的国家资本主义主要是国有企业等以国家资本形式存在的资本主义。社会主义制度中的国家资本主义并非指国有企业，而是指社会主义性质的经济成分。

"State capitalism" this is not a new word, as early as the end of the 19th century in the west, as capitalism from the stage of free competition to monopoly phase transition, the bourgeois government stepped up its involvement and intervention on economic activity, some scholars take the above phenomenon known as the "national capitalism", also some people call it the "national socialism". Classic marxist writers such as Engels and Lenin have made a serious analysis and evaluation of the phenomenon of state capitalism. The concept of "state capitalism" they used was clear and definite in its meaning. But in recent years, some western scholars and politicians to the right of China, Russia and other relatively rapid economic growth in emerging countries labeled as "state capitalism", support the development of state economy to attack these countries and participate in international competition in the market is doing "state capitalism", poses a threat to the free market economy. "The rise of state capitalism has greatly reduced the efficiency of global markets and brought populist politics into economic decision-making," they claim. At the same time, "state capitalism" has become a hot topic in the international political and economic circles, attracting attention from all sides. The practice of western minority, is nothing but by denigrating China and other emerging countries, create obstacles to the development of these countries, to curb the national development, maintain the main western countries in the international political and economic pattern and the leading position of the purpose of the supremacy. At a time when the international political and economic pattern is undergoing profound changes, its purpose is clearly impossible to achieve. But their deliberate misuse of the somewhat academic label "state capitalism" has left many people confused and confused. Therefore, it is necessary to make an in-depth analysis of this concept and clarify its exact connotation.

As an economic form, state capitalism exists in both capitalist and socialist societies. They have something in common, something different. Lenin defined state capitalism under capitalism and state capitalism under socialism. He pointed out that state capitalism under capitalist conditions "is a kind of capitalism under which the state power directly controls these or those capitalist enterprises. Under socialist conditions, state capitalism "is capitalism in which we can restrict and define its scope". It can be concluded from these two definitions that the common feature of state capitalism is the capitalist economic form controlled by state power. From this point of view, state capitalism is only one of many economic elements in a social economy. Under the condition of capitalism, national capitalism economy such as state-owned enterprises, there are many private capitalist economy, such as private enterprises, they are in a market economy, free competition and self development. Under socialist conditions, in addition to the state capitalist economy, there is also a state-owned economy and a collective economy that embodies the socialist nature, as well as a large number of private economy and individual economy. Lenin as pointed out in 1921, Soviet Russia at that time, there are five economic sectors: the patriarchal clan, which belongs to the natural economy to a great extent the peasant economy and commodity economy, private capitalism, national capitalism and socialism. MAO zedong pointed out in the Chinese communist party leaders have seven-time, new-democratic economy includes the following components: the socialist nature of the state-owned economy, half of socialist cooperative economy, private capitalism, the individual economy, as well as national and private cooperation national capitalist economy. It is clear that state capitalism is nothing more than a form of economy or an economic component, alongside other economic components. And it has never been a dominant economic component in either capitalist or socialist society.

The state capitalism in the capitalist system and the state capitalism in the socialist system have different contents. State capitalism in the capitalist system is mainly capitalism in the form of state capital, such as state-owned enterprises. As early as the stage of free competition capitalism, state-owned enterprises existed in a small scope. In his letter to Engels of December 8, 1857, Marx showed that there was a phenomenon of state capitalism at that time. Marx wrote: "French capital Business as usual is timid, stingy and cautious. Speculators exist only in sectors where the state is a true business owner, directly or indirectly. It is quite obvious that a big capitalist, like the French government, can survive for a while longer than a private capitalist even if he becomes a comfortable bankrupt. Under the conditions of capitalism, state-owned enterprises are capitalist in nature, and they do not have socialist nature. This is determined by the nature of the bourgeois state. Engels had criticized the capitalism of state-owned enterprises as the view of socialism, he wrote: "the state of every kind of interference free competition - protective tariff, trade associations, tobacco monopoly, nationalization of individual industry, foreign trade companies, the royal ceramics factory - was called" socialism ", it is purely a Manchester bourgeoisie in order to gain for the fabrication. We should criticize this fabrication rather than believe it. In March 1891 in a letter to Max ? Oppenheimer, Engels once again to his own opinions on the issue of nationalization of capitalism. "The nationalization of jobs for surplus workers by state or local authorities and the food trade should, in my view, be a broader issue than the one mentioned in your letter," he wrote. This should include not only the trade in domestic food but also its production. Otherwise, how do you provide jobs for the remaining workers? You know, they become surplus workers precisely because their products have no market. Here, however, we are dealing with the issue of expropriation of private landowners, which is well beyond the reach of modern German or Austrian states. ...... As long as the regime is in the hands of the propertied classes, no nationalisation will eliminate exploitation but change its form. Obviously, in Engels view, the state-owned enterprises, and other countries capital is merely a changed form of capitalism, and can only be subordinate part of the capitalist economy, capitalism will never tolerate the unlimited development of state capitalism. Engels's judgment was vindicated. The implementation of neoliberal economic policies in western developed countries since the 1980s has greatly weakened the elements of capitalism in these countries and strengthened the power of private capitalism.

State capitalism in the socialist system does not refer to state-owned enterprises, but refers to something else. Lenin once the Soviet national capitalist economy form summarized into four kinds: the first is a concession, that the state machinery and equipment production data such as rent to capitalist, the latter by the capitalist way; The second is cooperatives, or small commodity producers' cooperatives. The third is: "the state attracts the capitalists as businessmen and pays them a commission to sell the products of the state and buy the products of small producers." The fourth is: "the state leases state-owned enterprises or oil fields, forests, land and so on to enterprise capitalists." In accordance with the provisions of article 31 of the common program of the Chinese people's political consultative conference, the economy of cooperation between state capital and private capital is an economy of the nature of state capitalism. Under the condition of necessary and possible, should encourage private capital to develop in the direction of state capitalism, such as national enterprise processing, or with state of the joint venture, or in the form of a loan of national enterprises, development of national resources, etc. According to the above standards, the mixed ownership economy in China's current economic composition, as well as some private enterprises that are processing and manufacturing for the state or state-owned enterprises, are the national capitalist economy. Some western scholars and politicians regard China's state-owned enterprises and state sovereign funds as state capitalism, which is both a distortion of the concept of state capitalism and a distortion of the socialist system. China is a socialist country, and the state nature of China determines that the state-owned assets held by the state are the economic components of the socialist nature. At the present stage of China's state-owned enterprises after restructuring, as in a market economy operate independently, self-financing, self-development of commodity producers and operators, but its capital belongs to all the people, belongs to the public nature; Its chief executives are appointed by the government; All its profits are first owned by the state and then distributed among the state, the enterprise and the relevant personnel as required. It plays a leading and dominant role in the national economy, obeys the needs of the country's overall development and long-term development, and reflects the nature of socialism. It also bears a great deal of social responsibility that other economic actors can afford not to. It is not a state capitalist economy, but a socialist economy of the nature of public ownership.

It is wrong for some scholars and politicians in the west to describe state capitalism as a rival model of development to a free-market economy. This is not a new discovery, and scholars have refuted it long ago. After the second world war, the status and role of the state in economic activities have been significantly enhanced worldwide. This is reflected in three aspects: first, developed capitalist countries have repeatedly triggered economic crisis due to the increasing contradiction between private monopoly capitalism and the development of productive forces. In order to alleviate the economic crisis, the bourgeoisie countries had to intervene more and more deeply in economic activities, hence the emergence of state monopoly capitalism. Second, from colonial rule, obtains the national independence of the third world countries in order to realize industrialization as soon as possible, get rid of the control of international monopoly capital, achieve economic independence, have to use the power of the state power to create and support national capitalist economy. Third, the national socialist camp in transforming traditional economy, the construction of the socialist economy into full play in the process of the power of the state power, not only set up directly by the state control and management of the state-owned economy, and the country of the supervision and control of other economic sectors also greatly improved. So in the sixties and seventies of the 20th century, some western scholars based on this, think of a new type of system and development mode, and named as the "national capitalism", and they indiscriminately the nature of these three completely different economic systems all referred to as the state capitalism. Leftwing American academics Alex Dupuy and Barry Truchil criticized this view as early as 1979. They point out that the fundamental basis for distinguishing between different social systems and modes of production is the dominant productive relationship. In the developed capitalist countries and the third world capitalist countries, the dominant production relation is based on the production of the private capital ownership and possession of the surplus value of the capitalist production relations; In socialist countries, the dominant productive relations are those in which the state owns the means of production and the production and distribution of surplus products are controlled by the state. Described in the concept of state capitalism is the developed capitalist countries and the third world capitalist mode of production, and describe the socialist country mode of production, in the theory and logic is vague. Although state intervention and intervention are a prominent phenomenon in contemporary capitalist economy, the capitalist system has not changed fundamentally. Private capital is not subordinate to the state, it is still the dominant form of the capitalist economy, and market operation is not under the control of the state plan. The state, as an inherent element of capitalist production relations, has only played a greater role than before. This change can be reasonably explained in the logical framework of capitalism. The theory of state capitalism does not provide more content, so it is difficult to establish. It is more difficult to describe socialism in the era of planned economy by the state capitalist model. First, in the planned economy sector, the production and distribution of products do not have the attributes of commodities. Second, not the government's economic management departments and the capitalist class delimit equal-sign, on the function and role of the government's economic management departments of the socialist economy can not for their own goals for the accumulation of production materials, also can't buy Labour; Third, in the socialism initial stage, especially in the capitalist world market by many socialist countries do exist some capitalist economy, but it is not the dominant economic form, and supervision by the state policy and restrictions.

Although today's socialism is different from the planned economy era, but it is still essentially is the public ownership as the main body, with the aim to develop common prosperity of the socialist system, it has essential difference with the capitalist system. Current state capitalism of the scholars and politicians to China, Russia and Saudi Arabia, the social system is completely different countries pinched together, forced labeled as state capitalism. Like their predecessors, they have confused the fundamental differences between different social systems, which are both theoretical and logical.

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英文论文写作框架分析

很多留学生在写作英文论文会忽视框架的设计，其实这是非常错误的。一个好的框架能让论文的每一部分都衔接紧密，浑然一体，从而获得高分。当然，框架的设计并不是一件容易的事情，下面就给大家讲解一下英文论文的写作框架。

1.主题与线索

英文论文的撰写应该突出主题，各章节围绕主题展开。论文主题见之于论文标题，各章主题见之于各章标题，各节标题见之于各节标题。导师通常根据目录所列各级标题，提出自己的修改意见。实际上，在论文撰写过程中，自己要反复推敲，用力最多的，也是论文目录。这一切，都是因为目录可以反映全文的主题与线索。

2.逻辑关系

论文叙说的逻辑，从根本上讲，是在构造一个完整的论辩。将每一章中的每一个小节标题联系起来，构成本章完整的论辩，将每一章的标题联系起来，构成本书完整的论辩。作为一种分析策略，自己和读者，都不妨对论文的每一节或每一章，进行一句话式的归纳，再将这几句话合在一起，检讨其中的逻辑关系。

3.平衡原则

论文构造应遵循平衡的原则，即论文核心各章篇幅应大致相等。每一章中，各节篇幅也应大致相等。论文结构的不完美，反映的是论文内容的不完美。结构的完美与内容的完美是一致的。如果出现这种情况，就要考虑合并或分拆，也要重新考虑章与章或节与节之间的逻辑关系。过于冗长的表格或其他引用文献，甚至稍为偏离主题，但有时又是必不可少的交待或说明，置于正文中，显得累赘，置于脚注和尾注，又嫌太长。在这种情况下，将其置于附录，应是明智之举。

以上就是关于英文论文写作框架的讲解，希望留学生在以后的写作中都能重视框架，这样才能提升论文的质量。

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Paper代写：The blue hotel

本篇paper代写- The blue hotel讨论了小说《蓝色旅馆》。《蓝色旅馆》是克莱恩的著名短篇小说之一，小说的情节围绕一个纸牌游戏展开，主要刻画了身份背景不同的男性形象，其中瑞典人的形象是最深入人心的。《蓝色旅馆》中的瑞典人怪诞的行为和纸牌游戏中与他人的冲突是导致他死亡的直接原因，这既是一个性格悲剧，更是社会环境所酿成的苦果。本篇paper代写由51due代写平台整理，供大家参考阅读。

Stephen klein is called pioneer of American naturalistic novels. He created a series of images of ordinary people with his unique naturalistic writing techniques, revealing the cruelty of war, the poverty of American underclass, the rampant violence and other themes. In 1893, street girl Meiji was called the first naturalistic novel in American literature. The novel "the red medal of valor" established his unshakable position in the American literary world. The short story blue hotel is also one of its popular works. Novel creation in crane traveling after the western United States, the plot is simple, depicting the are different little background, such as the old farmer, swedes, east, cowboy, hotel owners and gamblers. They seem to be simple-minded, gambler, drunkard and irrational, but they are trying to survive in the harsh conditions of the American west in a mask of armed ego.

Mask is an ancient dramatic expression technique, which first appeared in ancient Greek tragedy. Nowadays, it usually refers to the social mask people may wear. The personality mask jung refers to elevates people's social communication mode to the theoretical level. ", he thought, the personality mask is a complex system between individual consciousness and society, on the one hand can make the individual some exact impression to others, on the other hand to hide the true nature of the individual." It can also be said that the personality mask is the role played by the individual in accordance with the requirements of the society, and it is the side that the individual shows publicly. On the face of it, the bizarre behavior of the swedes in "hotel blue" and the conflict with others in card games were the immediate causes of his death. It is not hard to find that this is not only a character tragedy, but also a result of social environment. It is the irreconcilable contradiction and conflict between his personality mask and his real self in the actual environment that causes these tragedies.

The Swede was different from the others as soon as he appeared. When he entered the hotel, everyone else washed their hands in cold water, except him, who was cautious and trembling. When the others made brief pleasantries with the people around them, he was the only one who remained silent and suspicious. But while they were all absorbed in the game of CARDS, he laughed coldly and heartily, lest anyone should kill him. He then accepted an invitation to play poker with others. In the same way, when playing CARDS, his performance is very bizarre, and sometimes he shouts hysterically, which indicates that he is extremely frightened. Suddenly, he cried out, "I think someone wants to kill me!" He was taken away from the game by his boss. But when he came back from the game, he spoke in a tone of arrogance, looked aggressive and aggressive. When he found out that jonny was cheating, he was even more persistent in pestering him, and the two began to wrestle. Things got worse and worse, and the scuffle soon turned into a fight. In this struggle, the swedes' eyes were "as fierce as a lion" and "as fierce as a bull", very frightening. When jonny was defeated, he was more like a proud cock, strutting and laughing.

Jung believed that we wore the personality mask with ourselves and our role in society, who am I to tell the outside world, we use personality mask to ideal self, in order to maintain our hypocrisy and cowardice. The swedes disguise themselves as arrogant and fierce, trying to hide their fear and panic with hysterical Shouting and fighting, and their personality masks are extremely inflated. However, if the personality mask is too artificial, it will produce symptoms of mental disorder, such as irritability and loneliness. The excessive panic and mania of the swedes are the manifestations of the inflated personality mask. This led him to sacrifice the other components in personality, seriously affected the mental health and normal social interaction, and made him the strange environment in the blue hotel in the isolated position.

Klein's description of the scene sets a heavy tone for the novel. Outside the blue hotel is a solitary prairie, where snowstorms have been raging, a frightening sight, and violence was rampant in the western United States. Swedes before to the western United States in the region there is a bias, think at that time still stay in the wilderness, in the western United States has not been development period, and affected by the natural environment, but his heart was filled with fear. This reaction comes from his fear of the unknown things or people, which triggers the psychological defense mechanism and makes him unconsciously enter a different state of mind from the real human nature. It can be said that the tragedy of the Swedish people's fate, in addition to the reasons for the expansion of their own personality masks, is mainly due to social and environmental factors.

The fear and grotesque behavior of the swedes made the rest of the hotel very unhappy with him. When he could not suppress our fears, loudly shout out someone to kill him, others still absorbed in play CARDS, not to what he said society, even think this is crazy behavior. While playing the card game, the swedes saw that there was a dark side to the game, but the easterners did not support him when he rescued his partner, the Oriental. When the swedes decided jonny was cheating, no one was on the swedes' side, although everyone else knew. He was deeply isolated and felt a strong sense of threat, and his fear was reinforced. It can be said that the swedes at this time were completely isolated from the small society of blue hotels as an outsider. To defend themselves and to prove their bravery, the swedes resorted to violence. As a result, he reverted to his previous timid stance and became fierce.

When the Swede won the battle against jonny, he wanted to show himself and win the support and approval of others. Unfortunately, he failed again and even lost his own life. After the swedes left the blue hotel, they trudged through the storm and found a hotel. He walked with his head held high in the tavern, and spoke with a ferocious fierceness. In addition, he took a hard drink of whiskey and asked the gambler to drink with him. Likewise, the gambler ignored him, not to mention the victory he had just won in the fight. The indifference of the gambler to the swedes rekindled his anger, which led him to force the gambler to drink, and he was eventually killed by the gambler. At the end of the novel, the Oriental's words are thought-provoking. The easterners believed that the swedes were responsible for their deaths and should bear the main responsibility. Gamblers were merely accomplices. What the Oriental said tells the real cause of death of the Swedish people's tragic ending. His environment and the conflict between the swedes and others have contributed to this tragedy.

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Essay代写：NATO counter-terrorism strategy

下面为大家整理一篇优秀的essay代写范文- NATO counter-terrorism strategy，供大家参考学习，这篇论文讨论了北约反恐战略。自冷战结束以来，世界安全形势发生了巨大的变化，传统意义上的军事威胁相对减弱，而恐怖主义等非传统威胁正不断增强。北约的整体战略也就此作出了相应的调整，对恐怖主义问题的关注在其战略中的地位逐步上升。尤其是“9・11”事件后，反击恐怖主义在一定程度上成为了北约议事日程中最紧迫的议题。这一变化反映在北约不断修订的战略文件中，也体现在北约的政策实践中。在某种意义上甚至可以说，对恐怖主义的反击重塑了北约。

NATO was founded in the early cold war, its main purpose is to Western Europe at that time then forms a military alliance with the United States, to jointly prevent the resurrection of German militarism and the threat of Soviet power in eastern Europe, and NATO during the cold war the main strategic concern is how to prevent the Soviet union and its satellites can launch a large-scale armed invasion of Western Europe. During the cold war, NATO issued four guiding strategic documents to guide the overall defense strategy of NATO. On the whole, these strategic documents, though slightly different, are guided by the basic idea of preparing for a full-scale war with the Soviet bloc. And because NATO lacks sufficient confidence in its ground defense capabilities deployed in central Europe, nuclear weapons will be the main source of leverage for the Soviet military on the ground. From a defensive perspective, NATO has also envisaged possible engagement with the Soviet bloc in areas such as the Middle East or the far east, but its focus has been primarily on Western Europe. Other types of military activity, including counter-terrorism, were not of concern to NATO at the time.

Western Europe at that time there have been some domestic terrorist activities, including striking is the national separatism and political radicalism stance of paramilitaries and parties, such as Spain's eta, the Irish republican army, Italy's red brigades, the federal republic of Germany in the red army faction terrorist, etc. For a long time, people tend to think of these activities is not too much attention on NATO level, its influence is mainly limited to within countries, to blow is mainly composed of governments. However, after the end of the cold war, with some parties especially former officials publicly acknowledged in the news media, some countries parliament announced various surveys and survey results, journalists and historians intervention of relevant investigation and research, a surprising truth began to disclosure: in the fight against communist expansion, which is dominated by the NATO in the United States to implement the strategy of "tension". Benefited from the cia funding support, and Western Europe have been setting up a secret organization, which USES the very means in creating tension as the frontier of the cold war western society, will oppose terrorism against terrorist activities focus on the political left, the far-right secret organization of terrorism crimes committed referred to each other, or indirectly encouraged the far-left forces of terrorism, aims to break the political authority of the left, to prevent the rise of them. In spite of the NATO and the exact relationship between Western Europe during the cold war, terrorism, people are still looking forward to more direct first-hand archival evidence, but the existing materials showed that cannot be ruled out NATO and the complex connection between terrorism and other illegal activities. This shows from a side, terrorism and counter - terrorism itself, have a strong policy tool.

The collapse of the Soviet union in the late 1980s and early 1990s led to the complete dissolution of the Warsaw pact group, which had long been in conflict with NATO, and even the Soviet union itself was on the verge of collapse. NATO's military strategy of using the Soviet union and the Warsaw pact as its main imaginary enemies has been shaken. Along with the further development of the Soviet union domestic situation in eastern Europe, NATO leadership gradually felt across Europe and even the world's strategic situation in fundamental changes, to maintain the original strategy has seem inappropriate.

At the London summit in July 1990, NATO leaders agreed on the need for major adjustments in the organization's basic strategic thinking and mission. NATO issued a new strategic guidance document in November 1991. In its overall assessment of the strategic environment, it believes that the threat from eastern Europe has faded with the collapse of the Soviet bloc and the dissolution of the Warsaw treaty organization. And because liberalism ideology and market economic system, the gradual expansion of the iron curtain on both sides of the political division has gradually offset for a long time, thus fundamentally shaken to the foundation of military confrontation. Due to the development of the European Community and the success of a series of arms control treaties between eastern and Western Europe, the level of military confrontation on both sides of the iron curtain has also been reduced to a certain extent. And crucially, step by step as Soviet troops evacuated from eastern Europe, NATO has been worried about the invasion of the Western Europe could happen is unlikely, may be facing security threats in the future is uncertain. Of course, because the former Soviet union still has a large stockpile of nuclear and conventional weapons, it will have a significant impact on the security of Europe and NATO. Ethnic conflicts and territorial disputes in central and eastern Europe will gradually become a major threat to the security of NATO members, especially at a time when such conflicts will involve external powers. NATO is also looking to the south of the region, west Asia and north Africa, whose value was underlined by the gulf war of 1990. In addition, NATO has begun to focus on the proliferation of weapons of mass destruction and the threat of terrorism. But due to the change of the situation in Europe and the world at this time also in the process of happening, the end result is not very clear, so NATO of the strategic adjustment is relatively more obscure, no future missions and threats to make very clear demarcation.

The evolution of the European situation became clearer in the 1990s. Most eastern European countries have undergone massive democratization and market economy reforms, and relations with NATO have become increasingly close. As early as the 1994 summit, NATO decided to develop a "partnership for peace" to strengthen relations with central and eastern European countries in preparation for the next round of expansion. On the one hand, Russia was plunged into a prolonged recession and political turmoil, and its military strength was greatly weakened by a lack of funds and a loss of personnel. For NATO, the threat from the east is diminishing. On the other hand, many countries in central and eastern Europe have been caught in ethnic and religious conflicts due to the sudden openness and intensification of the complex ethnic conflicts that have been repressed. In particular, a series of civil wars in the former Yugoslavia have had a rather negative impact on security in the region. NATO is also involved in the civil war in bosnia and herzegovina and the kosovo conflict. It in the former Yugoslavia area geographically adjacent to central and eastern Europe are required to execute tasks to give necessary support, coupled with the transition of these nations have already applied to join the organization the favorable situation, prompting them to finally clear the eastward expansion of the strategic thinking.

At the NATO Washington summit in April 1999, the leaders unanimously adopted a new NATO strategy. The strategy confirmed the NATO during the cold war for their valuable contribution to the maintenance of peace in Europe and clearly believes that the threat of the cold war has disappeared, replaced by a new, more uncertain threat. NATO has stressed that it will pay more attention to instability in the Balkans. In fact, NATO is now not only highly involved in the bosnian crisis, but also launching massive air strikes against the south alliance during the kosovo war. This suggests that the most serious real threat to NATO at the time was political instability and economic recession in central and eastern Europe, and that its involvement in the region was deepening. At the time, terrorism was a concern, but it was not a priority for NATO operations. Since then peacekeeping operations in the former Yugoslavia have not been strictly counter-terrorism operations, but their characteristics are similar to those of counter-terrorism and counter-insurgency operations. Overall, the 1991 and 1999 NATO strategy papers were relatively vague and lacked a clear understanding and emphasis on future threats, especially terrorist threats.

In 2001 the outbreak of the "911" incident of NATO in the post-cold war era has the most significant influence. Looking back on the trajectory of NATO after the incident, it can be said that it has prompted a fundamental change in the attitude of NATO on the issue of terrorism. In the day after the "911" incident, on September 12, 2001, NATO's decision, in article 5 of the performance of the north Atlantic treaty commitments about the group's collective self-defence, clearly shows the other member states and the United States united, determined by military means to fight terrorism. The alliance mechanism for cross-border flights was activated. NATO traditionally focused on is the European members of the security issues, the United States is more as a provider of security rather than consumers, yet it was the attacks against NATO and the strongest military power around the world, the United States. NATO's original intention is to rely on U.S. forces to defend Europe, article 5 of the results of the north Atlantic treaty was first put them into practice is to support the United States, this is unexpected events. And will attack from non-state actors as meet the requirements of the Washington treaty "armed attack", to the practice of collective self-defense, is beyond the respond as to the traditional "military invasion" understanding.

While NATO clearly show the positive support counterterrorism operations in the United States and the attitude of the start of the war in Afghanistan, but the United States in the war didn't make the organization become its counter-terrorism rely on the force at the core, in fact, the United States has formed a more meets the needs of their union. Its approach to NATO can be summed up as: we will contact you if we need to. Because of the long gap in military spending between the United States and NATO's European members, it has been difficult for the latter to give much substantive support to subsequent U.S. military operations abroad. The sum total of NATO's European members troops than the United States army, but due to long time in significant difference between the national defense expenditure, lack of European troops and American army the same global information gathering and strike capability, strategic project gap is obvious. Especially American combat operations in Afghanistan later geographically and far to Europe, the main operational way also is given priority to with air attacks over a long distance, this is not good at European armies. So basically the main military operations at all stages of the war in Afghanistan by the U.S. army alone, in addition to directly support the British operations, other NATO members only by airborne early warning and control system for the aerial reconnaissance and command provides certain help. In addition, European countries have deployed more naval forces in the Mediterranean to protect their maritime transport routes. In short, NATO's involvement in the main stages of the American-led war in Afghanistan is awkward. This was first because it launched the collective defence clause in response not to a previously feared mass invasion of its member states' territory, but to an unexpected emergency. Moreover, the huge gap in us and European military capabilities has left NATO's support for us operations at a very limited level. It is precisely because NATO's role in the main combat phase of the war in Afghanistan is not obvious that the decline of NATO is frequent.

However, as the end of the war in Afghanistan main battle phase, the taliban regime in Afghanistan, was overthrown by basic nationwide assistance provided by the NATO in Afghanistan is becoming increasingly important for the United States. Small, elite special forces and large air strikes may be enough to defeat an opponent on the ground, but they cannot afford the long-term task of maintaining stability in Afghanistan. The latter requires large ground forces, and sending European troops in the name of NATO can reduce the pressure on American troops on personnel. In January 2002, the United Nations adopted resolution 1386 in support of the establishment of an international security assistance force in the Kabul region. The force was made up of volunteer to participate in Afghanistan country, but because of this way doesn't adapt to the development of the situation, since NATO in August 2003 to take over the command of the international security assistance force in Afghanistan. In lO of the same year, the UN security council decided to extend the mandate of the force throughout Afghanistan. NATO's military operations have gone well beyond its defensive zones, but the subsequent terrorist attacks on Spain and Britain have made it all the more plausible to carry out the mission in NATO's name. The international security assistance force is mainly composed of other NATO Allies, the United States is only limited participation, at the same time the United States also separate leadership "operation enduring freedom", so in Afghanistan have two parallel operation.

In March 2003, the United States launched the invasion of Iraq. The war has not received unanimous support from NATO members because it is not closely linked to terrorist attacks. The United States has formed a coalition of countries that have volunteered for the war, but NATO has not been directly involved in the Iraq war. But, persuaded by the United States, NATO later provided personnel training for the war in Iraq. NATO is also widely involved in a range of international peacekeeping operations. As the war in Afghanistan is gradually stepped into the stage of mainly clear remnants of the enemy forces of counter-insurgency, America's military advantage is limited by the asymmetric warfare means, war also evolved towards increasingly stalemate. The Afghan war has increasingly resembled a classic guerrilla scenario. The United States and NATO found themselves in a situation where they could not be defeated, but where they could not eliminate their opponents completely. Since 2005, tensions in what had been a relatively calm Afghanistan have grown, with the taliban increasingly attacking civilians and foreign troops. Roadside bomb attacks have become its main means. It was a barbarous and difficult way to prevent it, and the attackers had no clear military purpose but to reduce the morale of the enemy by causing as many casualties as possible. NATO forces, Afghan government forces and local civilians have all suffered heavy casualties.

Taliban forces to enhance the main reasons are: first, the leadership has not been destroyed, just return to Pakistan's western mountains, which can keep the command of the action; Second, can hide the taliban in Pakistan's western mountains to save power, there have been large Numbers of pushtun inhabitants live, can provide effective shelter and supplies for the taliban, but U.S. and NATO cannot direct access to the region to clear, this is to give up the opportunity to attack opponents nests, and simply waiting for the enemy attack at favorable timing turned into an endless battles of defense; In addition, the 2003 war in Iraq, launched by the United States, intensified anti-American sentiment in the Muslim world and facilitated more support for the taliban.

In an effort to combat the more powerful and active taliban, international security assistance forces began moving toward southern Afghanistan in late 2005 to fight directly against the taliban's remnants. American troops to the participation of the international security assistance force began to increase, combat becomes more intense, the number of foreign troops in Afghanistan has increased rapidly, from the rapid rise of more than ten thousand people at the beginning of 2002 to 2007, more than forty thousand people. In addition, the international security assistance force has become the main force in the war, and the U.S. military has also started to participate in relevant operations. In 2006, the unified command was established between operation enduring freedom and the international security assistance force to coordinate their operations. As security has deteriorated, divisions within NATO over the operation have grown.

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