Reflection papers写作讲解

Reflection papers就是反思报告，它要求大家在学习的过程中研究，收获经验，并进行反思，提出批判和建议。而老师让学生写作Reflection papers也是为了了解学生的困难点在哪里，从而做针对性的教导。那么Reflection papers该怎么写呢？下面就给大家讲解一下。

一、头脑风暴

1. 明确主题

把自己的经验、阅读、课程总结成1-3个句子，需要注意的是这些句子要是描述性的，并能直击要点。

2. 记下脑海里清晰显现的那些素材

想想他们为啥在脑海里如此锋利，写下来你的理解~

对课程或者阅读来讲，你可以记下一些特别的句子或者总结一下文章。

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对于经历来讲，你可以记下这段经历中的一些特别的事情，比如写一个印象深刻的小故事，记下经历中让人难忘的图像、声音或者其他知觉。

3. 表格的形式展现出来

表格或者图表可以跟踪记录你的ideas。

要点/主要经历

对要点的回应

分享

可以包含你认为重要的所有点，一行一个点。

写一下你自己的价值观、个人经验、信仰如何影响到自己对这个要点的回应的。

描述一下你想分享的那些自己对要点的回应。

4. 问问题引导自己反思

如果实在觉得对自己列出来的要点有点反思迟钝，哈哈，没事，试着问自己几个问题，问自己这些经历或者阅读材料跟你怎么发生联系的。举几个例子：

阅读材料、课堂演讲或者经历是不是对你的社交、文化、感情或者宗教信仰等方面发出了挑战？如果有挑战，他们怎么影响你的？

阅读材料、课堂演讲或者经历有没有改变你的思维方式？有没有跟之前的信念矛盾？他们是怎么改变你的？

阅读材料、课堂演讲或者经历有没有给你留下点疑问？这些疑问是你之前就有的还是经历之后产生的？

二、规划文章

1. 简洁又亲切

典型的反思报告基本保持在300到700词之间，也有要求写个千八百词的。

2. 说说自己的期望

反思报告像大部分文章一样，要有introduction，body还有conclusion。这里的introduction主要就是讲讲自己对于阅读材料、演讲或者经历的期望，期望收获什么东西或者有什么改变。

对于reading和lecture来讲，主要就是基于文章或者演讲题目、摘要、简介提出自己的期望。

对于经历来讲，主要就是根据自己以前的知识、类似的经验或者别人提供的信息提出期望。

3. 写写中心思想句子

在introduction的结尾做个总结，用一句话把自己的期望转化成本篇文章自己最终想达到的目的。中心思想很重要，基本可以简短的解释一下是否能达到自己的期望，并让自己的反思报告找到聚焦点。

最典型的句子就是：从本次阅读中/本节课中/本次经历中，我学到了……

4. 正文对结论进行阐释

刚刚在中心句子中说了自己学到了啥，那可不是吹牛，所以真的需要你说说你咋学到的，到底学的啥，用逻辑和明确的细节来证明一下你是怎么到达终点的。

尽管文章的重点不是个总结，但仍然需要我们简要介绍一下相关细节，给自己的结论提供个来龙去脉。对于每个结论或者自己的idea最好写个单独的段落，每个段落也要有个段落主题句提示一下你的point是个啥，方便老师阅读。

5. 总结一下

你的结论应该简洁的描述一下整堂课、个人感受或者你对阅读材料或者经历的理解。你正文写的那些东西要能支持自己的结论哈。有时候我都是先写结论，然后需要编啥再编正文。

以上就是给大家分享的关于Reflection papers的写作技巧啦，希望可以帮到大家哦！

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Essay写作四种比较难的类型

想必留学生们都知道，Essay写作类型有很多种，不同类型的Essay写作难度也是不一样的。有的Essay可能随便写就过了，但有的却难度很大。那么在那么多的Essay之中，哪些Essay比较难写呢？下面就给大家讲解一下四种比较难的Essay类型。

1、Expository Essays

Expository essays主要着重于解释，这类essay的目的是测试你对一个主题的理解程度（以及你如何传达你的理解）。这可能涉及要求你比较两个ideas，或者定义一些事物并举例说明。典型的结构是这样的：

介绍这个topic，以及你将如何回答你的essay question.

一系列逻辑连接的段落，阐述你对主题的理解，以及你的evicence.

参考你给出的evidence来回答你的essay question，然后make conclusion.

这种类型的文章通常用于简短的assignment以及考试。

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2、Descriptive Essays

Descriptive essays不是争论一个观点，而是围绕一个观点做出更加详细的描写。

这些可以比其他essay类型更具个性和创造性（reflective essays通常包含descriptive element）。关键是让读者清楚你所描述的内容。这是一种非常有用的技巧，可以让你的作品更具吸引力。

3、Persuasive Essays

Persuasive (argumentative) essays在很多方面与expository essays非常相似。比如，它们的结构通常是相似的，而且还要求你通过research来回答一个问题。不过，persuasive essays一般更长一点。这是因为你需要大篇幅来证明你的观点，这可能涉及到更多的research甚至是实验。比如，不要只是列举和比较两个相对的theory，对于一个有说服力的essay，你可能需要研究这些theory的不同方面，代入你的critical thinking，来一个一个进行分析。这类essay一般都是作为final assignment。

4、Narrative Essays

最后，narrative essays是类似讲述故事的一篇文章。当然，这并不意味着你必须把你的短文写成一个小故事，而是要借鉴故事的惯例。

在内容方面，narrative essays通常是个人的或轶事性的，但也需要有一个观点（即你认为故事中体现的道德观或者你从经验中学到的教训）。

narrative essay中使用的语言应该清晰简明，不过也可以带有感情色彩。在narrative essay中，使用第一人称代词“I”比较常见，因为大家经常会在这种essay中描述个人经历。

以上这四种essay类型是留学生比较容易fail的，希望大家要注意，如果是遇到这几种essay，一定要认真去写。

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Paper代写：French national education system

下面为大家整理一篇优秀的paper代写范文- French national education system，供大家参考学习，这篇论文讨论了法国国民教育制度。法国国民教育制度确立于19世纪初期，这也正是西欧从传统社会向现代社会的转型时期，众多的教育家等在不同领域都留下了丰富的教育思想，成为以后各种教育理念的源头。法国国民教育体系的确立，推动了法国民族国家的形成，使法国走上教育现代化的道路，具有里程碑式的意义。同时，西方各国的思想家受此启发和影响，借鉴形成了符合本国国情的国民教育理论。

The French national education system was established in the early 19th century, which is the transition period from traditional society to modern society in Western Europe. This article, from the direct factor of promoting the formation of the French national education system, finds the direct cause of the establishment of the system in the three dimensions of politics, economy and ideology and culture, aiming at discovering how the subject right can influence the economic and cultural fields from the political field and become the root of the establishment of the French national

The French national education system was established in the early 19th century, which is the transition period from traditional society to modern society, and many educators, thinkers, statesmen, philosophers and economists left rich educational thoughts in different fields and became the source of various educational ideas. Carefully combing these precious materials, and critically inheriting, in order to provide useful reference for our country's education modernization construction and education reform.

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To clearly define the concept of "national education", the following is summed up by contrasting the differences between concepts:

The concept of popular education, which aims at raising the social welfare of the population and safeguarding the political interests of the country, is the beginning of the period of religious reform and the Renaissance, and the primary education of the common people in the mother tongue, which focuses on the educational purpose.

Education for all means that the State generally implements a certain degree of basic education for school-age children, a process that does not distinguish between the child's race, color, religious beliefs, gender and ability, and the emphasis is placed on the means of education.

The essence of the national education is a kind of the populace educates, at the same time has the unique nationality characteristic and the political color, this concept focus lies in emphasizes the education object, namely the nation state all people, manifests the "educates the right" the political significance.

National education contains the political meaning of "educational control right", and the emphasis of this concept is to emphasize the state's will of education power relative to the non state-controlled education right. This can be summed up as follows: National education is under the unified management of the State authority, through the form of universal education to carry out the public.

Foreign research on the theory of national education mainly focuses on the Western educational history, which mainly represents the Coubelles, lace, Brubach, Baldwin, Green and others. Coubelles in the history of education as an important part of civilization, from the perspective of the history of civilization to examine the role played by education in the development of civilization.

There are two important points in the book: first, the beginning of popular education, originated in religious reform and the Renaissance, a change of the church above the Bible, the status of the Bible elevated to the church, so that the general public to receive primary education can be followed, so that primary schools began to teach in the mother tongue; second, the 19th century, the concept of state control of education flourished, and national control and school-building campaigns were carried out throughout the world.

In the book "Nationalism and education since the 1789," Patsy the three elements that drive educational development: nationalism, democracy and the Industrial Revolution. Brubach the "Nationalism and education" in the book "History of Education", and "nationalism" to analyze the establishment and development of the national educational system has become a trend. In the third volume of the history of Western education, Baldwin analyzes the origin of national educational origin in Europe and America from the angle of ideological consciousness.

The literature on national education in China is not very rich and representative: the historical research on the theory and Practice of American and European Xudong in the middle of 18th century to 19th century, mainly explores the representative works and theories of the educator Montesquieu, the Shire maintenance, Rousseau, La Chalotte, and the people, The nation, As the basis of research, the three elements of the country outline the relations between the, the nation and the country, and reveal the significance of national education to the survival, prosperity and development of the country. The first chapter discusses the theory of French national education, and calls it the "think tank".

The establishment of the French national education system has promoted the formation of the French nation-state and made France embark on the road of educational modernization with landmark significance. At the same time, Western thinkers have been inspired and influenced by this, and have formed a national education theory in line with their own national conditions.

The theory of natural education in Pestalozi, Switzerland, benefited from Rousseau's thought, and England Owen's theory of character formation inherited the theory of Montesquieu and AI, and Washington's attempt to establish a "national university" was followed by Diderot. Therefore, the French national education thought promoted the establishment and development of the Western educational system, which was the source of the Western thought and had the research value.

Social transformation takes place not only in the economic field, but also in the non-economic fields such as education and politics. The modernization process is the transformation from the traditional society to the modern society, and the popularization of education is one of the important characteristics. At the beginning of the 18th century, most French schools were under the control of the Catholic Church. In primary education, the Christian School Brotherhood provides charitable education to poor and unfortunate children, and some nuns provide primary education to girls. The Jesuit and Oratoli monks controlled secondary education. In the middle of the 18th century, encyclopedia compilers began to shake the government's absolute control over the education system. They embraced the new concept of humanitarian democracy and insisted that education should be comprehensive, free, mandatory and non-religious. This thought has since become an integral part of the French Revolution.

With the revolutionary creation of a more democratic society, education is gradually recognized as a tool for the realization and maintenance of a new society. Many of the recommendations drafted by the three-level parliament in 1789 called for the reduction of classical courses in public education, emphasizing modern and practical courses. During the national conference, Mirabeau and Talleyrand drafted plans for secular education aimed at nurturing patriotic talent rather than religious talent. Condorcet has developed a complete national system for secular schools that provides free, compulsory and universal access to equal education for all children.

Following the establishment of the French Republic, the National Assembly has undertaken many efforts to establish a state-administered education system and to destroy church schools by confiscating property and banning teaching groups. The 1794 law of La Canaveral stipulates that each primary school shall accommodate 1000 persons and that it should be taught in French for reading, writing, accounting and physical geography. Through the teaching of patriotic songs, patriotic stories, to explain the declaration of Human Rights to instill Republican ideas. The 1795 law stipulates that thousands of communities should establish primary and secondary schools that teach reading and writing, and teach classical subjects and modern subjects to 12~18岁 children.

Political dimension: The French Revolution. In the early 18th century, France was a European power, but gradually lost its dominance in Europe during the reign of Louis 16. The economic crisis is a catalyst for long-standing discontent and an important direct factor in triggering the revolution. In the 1780s, agriculture had shown signs of crisis, wheat prices were weak, and, on the other hand, the severe crisis caused by the overproduction of grapes had led to a steep decline, while French industry was threatened by the 1786 Anglo-French Shangyo. In the 1788, there was a disastrous crop failure in agriculture, a sudden famine after years of stagnant prices, and unrest in both the city and the countryside.

A riot against the workers' owners erupted in the Antoine of Paris in April 1789. From this moment on, social warfare amplified the political crisis, and the most critical factor in the political crisis was the deficit. A number of small factions in the country split the state, and the colonial economic catastrophe led to increased government spending, tax increases and domestic social inequalities, which culminated in the outbreak of the Great Revolution. Louis 16 was forced to convene a three-level meeting, the third level proclaimed the establishment of the National Assembly, the abolition of feudal privileges, the drafting of the 1791 Constitution. The Constitution established a constitutional monarchy, abolished the inheritance system of the eldest son, liberated the serfs, confiscated the land of the church, and transformed the clergy into state officials through the people's election, prohibiting religious education in the church. The French Revolution ended the rule of absolute monarchy and spread the idea of freedom, democracy and equality. The Declaration on Human Rights and Citizenship, adopted in 1789, has a landmark meaning, emphasizing freedom and expressing the idea that people are born and always be free and equal. Human rights, in particular property rights, are sacrosanct, except through due process of law. The French Revolution triggered a democratic trend of thought, despite the obstruction of the king, the restoration and the reactionaries, but the power of freedom, equality and fraternity is still very strong.

Economic dimension: the Industrial Revolution. The industrial revolution began in the the 1760s and originated in central England, and its influence directly affected France, which deeply affected France and maintained its position in Europe for a long time. The rapid development of social productive forces provides a solid soil for the development of education. The industrial revolution put forward higher demand for the progress of science and technology, which requires the workers to improve their quality, education is the most direct and powerful means to meet this condition. Deselini once said: "The mechanical improvement only depends on the knowledgeable worker to have the practical possibility." "The evolution of the Industrial revolution has changed the social fabric, the number of cottage industries and small farmers has plummeted, with the consequent rise in the number of poor people, a series of social, economic and political problems, and education is considered to be an effective remedy for social problems." Antoine Prost's book "The History of French education" has aroused people's close attention to the relationship between school system and economic and social facts. The industrialization takes the science as the forerunner, causes the people to feel the cultural science charm earnestly, has emerged in the society to advocate the knowledge upsurge.

Thought level: the Enlightenment. The Christian church and the feudal aristocracy reigned in Europe for thousands of years, and business was not fully developed, and in 17th century France was under the rule of Louis 14, at the height of the feudal aristocracy and the church's senior monks. Culture and education are controlled by Catholic Jesuit monks, and the general public is in a state of ignorance. The Enlightenment has been in this background for nearly a century, with France as its center and French as the language of the Enlightenment, and France has become the model of the Western European countries, and prepared the French Revolution well. At that time, the progressive thinkers and educators preached freedom, equality and democracy, opposed to foolishness and advocated the popularization of cultural education, in which Montesquieu, Voltaire and Rousseau were pioneers.

In the fourth chapter of the spirit of Law, Montesquieu discusses the education problem, puts education in the connection with the polity, and mainly discusses the relationship between education and politics. He believed that the principles of republicanism, monarchy and despotism differed in character, honour and horror, and that the corresponding education should have different goals. He criticized the education of authoritarian regimes, praised the education of the monarchy, and aspired to Republican education. In modern thinkers, Montesquieu pointed out the relationship between education and the state for the first time, and thought that education is a major cause that cannot be neglected by the state.

Lucoby Montesquieu was more radical, and according to his "social contract", the will of all citizens was the sovereign right of the nation. Natural rights are not limited to the right to life, the right to freedom and the right to own property, but also to the pursuit of happiness and well-being for all. Since the government's goal is to raise public welfare, the government must represent the will of all citizens, not just the owners of property.

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Paper代写：Habermas's theory of "inner Transcendence"

下面为大家整理一篇优秀的paper代写范文-Habermas's theory of "inner Transcendence"，供大家参考学习，这篇论文讨论了哈贝马斯的“内在超越”理论。哈贝马斯“内在超越”理论对复杂多变的当前国际社会，尤其是对宗教和宗教信仰，以及宗教之间的交流，有着极大的启示作用。哈贝马斯“内在超越”理论的核心路线表明了其宗教观就是理性主义路线，同时也说明了他不是要颠覆传统理性主义，而是要重塑理性主义对哲学、宗教等的重要意义。

The core line of Habermas's theory of "inner Transcendence" shows that his religious view is the rational route, and it also shows that he is not to subvert the traditional rationalism, but to reshape the significance of rationalism to philosophy and religion. Habermas's theory of "inner Transcendence" has a great revelation to the complex and changeable international society, especially to religious and religious beliefs, as well as to religious exchanges.

Habermas, the second generation main representative of the Frankfurt School, has made remarkable achievements in every subject, but from the religious point of view, the existing clear discussion has puzzled the later researchers. However, it is very puzzling that Habermas's writings have given great inspiration and influence to religion. Based on the present research achievements of Habermas, the author analyzes the core thought-"inner transcendence", displays his religious thoughts and explores whether Habermas's religious thought line is a kind of rationalism route, combining Habermas's "communicative rationality".

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Transcendence is one of the characteristics of human beings, is the most important characteristics, but also other animals can not match. The Bible tells us that Adam and Eve did not eat the fruit of the tree of good and evil in order to fill their stomachs, but to "transcend", to transcend their present state, and to be as omnipotent as God. Therefore, the history of mankind is a "transcendence" of history, in the "beyond" constantly change self-improvement self. Therefore, "people not only have the ability to grasp the ' presence ' real life, but also may respond to the ' not yet present ' future life. "It is the character of man, that is, to break the stipulation of real life, to make the pursuit of transcending reality, and thus to follow the dream of realizing the ability of God".

The term "Transcendence" is widely used, philosophy, religion, and other disciplines, which exist universally and inevitably in human culture. "Transcendence" means the meaning of "surpassing, ascending"--from reality, secular, phenomenon, spanning, ascending to ideal, free, beautiful, mysterious, salvation, eternal realm. In Western culture, "Transcendence" originated in the Middle Ages, from the etymology of Latin transcandere, when used as verbs, there are "cross", "Skip", "Cross" and other righteousness, when used as adjectives, there is "lofty", "broad-minded" meaning, It refers to some kind of state which is related to the individual's subjective learning attainment. "Transcendence", when it comes to the characterization of man, refers to the manifestation of the realm-the transcendence of Man, the promotion of a person's desire or attainment of a purely individual's subjective value. Real life in the "level", "grade" is not the same, refers to the meaning of the layer, that is, the so-called "realm" is not the same.

In both East and West thought, "Transcendence" has been analyzed and discussed. In Western thought, "Transcendence" is translated into "transcendental" in Philosophy, "transcendental", religion translated as "transcendental", "Now" and so on; obviously, "transcendental" as a verb, has already presupposed the essential key element that transcends the activity, namely the subject, object and scope of the activity, and the object and mode of the activity. These four elements complete the activity as the whole of "transcendence" activities, otherwise, it does not make any sense, let alone achieve or become a certain realm.

In modern Chinese thought, the definition of transcendence is quoted more MOU, "Heaven is above the meaning of transcendence." When the heaven is absorbed in the person, and within the human nature, then the Tao is intrinsic. Therefore, we can use the word Kant, saying that the Tao of Heaven is beyond, on the other hand, the inner. Heaven transcends and inside, at this time can be described as both religious and moral meaning, religion more than righteousness, and moral weight inherent righteousness.

Comparing the Chinese and Western studies, "Transcendence" has the ontological and metaphysical color of realism in its original meaning. The specific use of "transcendence" involves not only the four key elements mentioned above, but also the two other aspects that we must take note of. On the one hand, transcendental boundaries exist. What people seek and yearn for can be said to be a brand new thing, that is, the new "realm" and so on. Therefore, there must be a boundary between man and transcendence, or if one wants to reach a new realm, it is necessary to leap from the old realm and enter the other world which is entirely outside of himself, and there must be a "boundary" between the old and the new. The existence of this "boundary" makes the transcendence and theism have certain connection, namely the meaning of divine study.

On the other hand, according to the four elements of "transcendence" or the intention of "surpassing", in the cultural history tradition and the real life, we must acknowledge that the transcendence is the human transcendence, also can only be the human transcendence, at the same time, the link between the human and the transcendental boundary is not rationalism, but also is not the faith can complete. The value and practical meaning of life can be accomplished by reason, that is, people use reason to reach a new boundary.

In addition, the way of transcendence manifests itself as "inner transcendence" and "external Transcendence". The transcendere intention of Western culture refers to "outward", and immanere is opposite, therefore, there is no "external transcendence" in Western culture, and its "inner transcendence" is related to the different stages and different factions of Western philosophy history. Therefore, in Western philosophy, the problem of "transcendence" and "external" is only expressed as the relationship between Transcendence and immanence. Compared with "inner transcendence", there is the word "outward transcendence". In the Western culture thought, mainly refers to the Christianity to draw off the world God. "Inner Transcendence" in Chinese traditional culture thought was sageliness by Confucianism.

The emphasis of China and the West on Transcendence and the interpretation of transcendence in China and the West fully illustrate the important value and significance of transcendence over human beings. In other words, transcendence is one of the original characteristics of people, with the understanding of transcendence, it is not difficult to understand the meaning of people, as well as the value of life and the pursuit of goals. This is one of the purposes pursued by philosophy and religion. Throughout Habermas's philosophy, the key is "transcendence". The communicative behavior theory proposed by Habermas discusses the communicative rationality, that is, the rationality or rationalization of communication; Moreover, his other concept: "internal transcendence, transcendence in this world", actually refers to the internal transcendence usually referred to. "Inner Transcendence" is a question of rationality, and Habermas's communication rationality and rationalization problem is the problem of communicative rationality, that is, the problem of rationality. Here, "inner transcendence" has obvious religious overtones. This needs us to Habermas's religious view core-rational "intrinsic transcendence", namely the communication rationality or rationalization analysis, at the same time, we may also consider the religious belief surmounting, the intrinsic surmounting question, namely regarding the God question. Therefore, we can ask: how many people as the "inner transcendence" of the feasibility of the subject? Does the limited "intrinsic" potential actually "transcend" the finite and reach infinity in reality? "Communication rationality" and "inner Transcendence"

Habermas thinks that the traditional epistemology which begins from Kant is the result that the acquisition of the truth has been turned into a consensus through negotiation between subject and object, and the so-called "Copernican revolution" is to make the cognition conform to the object; On the basis of criticizing Kant's own monsters, Hegel believed that the subject and the object had the dynamic cognition convergence, thus reached the agreement. The critical theory proposed by Habermas is that truth exists in the communication between subjects, that is, the relationship between subject and object. Therefore, it is not only to establish the synergy between the subject and the object, but also to establish the discourse relationship. This puts the question of truth into the body of human being, and puts the truth into the rationality of the subject, and it is a kind of subject and subject, which is manifested in the interaction between people, or the interaction between groups and groups. As a result, rationality has become the most important, both individually and collectively.

The communicative behavior defined by Habermas: "From the perspective of mutual understanding, communicative behavior is the dissemination and renewal of cultural knowledge; From the perspective of coordinated action, the communicative behavior plays a role of social integration and creation of solidarity and mutual assistance; Finally, from the perspective of socialization, the communicative behavior is to create the unique characteristics and essence of the individual. "It can be seen that Habermas believes that culture is human culture, while people create their own culture, they also make individuals." Thus, the analysis of history and tradition can not be separated from the "creation" activities, this "creation" is actually a person's communication activities or communicative behavior. Therefore, compared to real life problems, such as political, legal, moral, fairness, justice and other major social problems, can not be separated from the concept of communication behavior. Communication refers not only to the interaction between individuals and individuals, but also to the behavior of society as a whole, and it does not start with the individual subject consciousness of self-reflection, but from the speech and communicative behavior based on the relationship of subject and object which is composed of a speaker and at least one listener.

The subject communication that Habermas emphasizes is not a single pair of communicative activities, and its object is not something other than human beings. This kind of intercourse behavior contains triple relation: first, understanding the relationship between subject and event and fact world, second, in a behavioral society world, in the interaction of the relationship between the practice subject and other subjects, third, a mature and painful subject and its own intrinsic nature, its own subjectivity. This is the three major knowledge expressed in traditional philosophy, that is, theoretical knowledge, practical knowledge and aesthetic knowledge.

According to the concept and characteristics of Habermas' communicative behavior, he believes that the motives and purposes of human communication are for the survival of the ego and for the better survival of the self. Of course, human beings have to obtain better living conditions, only to carry out more interaction activities, and to make interaction between the acts of fairness, justice and reasonable. However, in the established conditions of social life, human communication behavior is often disrupted, or even distorted, extremely unreasonable. To change that irrationality, he felt that only the appropriate language should be chosen for dialogue, recognition and respect for the norms and standards reached among each other. As a common norm and basis, all subjects must act as the final criterion of coordinated behavior. Of course, the criteria described here are achieved by a unified understanding of people. Therefore, to change the unreasonable behavior of communication, only dialogue. Moreover, the dialogue should be aimed at mutual understanding and understanding, and not for the purpose of satisfying or achieving unilateral requirements; otherwise, honest dialogue is impossible, coordination will eventually fail, and the harmonious relationship will not exist.

This shows that Habermas's transfer of reason is no longer to understand rationality merely as a kind of ability--the ability of the subject with self-consciousness, but as a kind of ability to use language to communicate. Thus, it leads to the definition or definition of the rationality and rationalization of the communicative behavior, that is, the definition of the communicative rationality.

Habermas believes that, first of all, the concept of communicative rationality, in the elaboration of it, although full of doubts, however, the concept of communicative rationality has sealed the short-sighted of cognitive instrumental rationality, followed by the two-level social concept, which links the two Paradigms of life world and system with a method that is not rhetorical; Finally, the Theory of Modernity, This paper explains the current social pathological types, and thinks that modern disease lies in the life field with communicative structure, which can be manipulated by independent system with formal structure. Therefore, the communicative behavior theory should be as far as possible to outline the modern paradox of social life relations.

Habermas's communicative behavior is among the main subjects. The main body here is people-oriented, that is, the subject refers to people, object is also refers to people. But, the intercourse behavior between the main body, namely the person and person's intercourse behavior, the subject and the object's intercourse behavior is the intercourse as the center. Therefore, "communicative rationality" allows rationality to be changed from "centering on subject", that is, centering on subjects and objects, to the rationality of "centering on Intersubjectivity". Communicative rationality mainly lies in establishing the communicative behavior between subjects, instead of the paradigm of instrumental behavior. Communicative behavior is a kind of interactive activity between subjects, i.e. the subject and the object take the language symbol as the medium. Therefore, the rationality of communication can make "rational structure not only in the expansion of purposeful rational behavior, that is to show the expansion of technology, strategy, organization and qualified means, but also in the media of communicative behavior, embodied in the mechanism of conflict adjustment, world Outlook and the formation of identity. ”

The activity of intercourse or intercourse becomes the center, it is advantageous to resist the arbitrary "instrumental behavior" dominating rationality, as far as possible through the discourse "communication activities" in-depth rationality, reach agreement, and finally complete rational communication. This is just as Habermas's other point of view, rational rationalization is the result of rational communication. In this way, the communication must be public or can be observed and validated, it could not happen within a subject or object, without being known by outsiders. Therefore, the communicative reason is not transcendental, but experience. But from another point of view, the communication action is to achieve some kind of "transcendence", constantly to the unknown "beyond the boundary" to break through, in order to achieve a new situation or state. This shows that the direction of communication is always not controlled by the main body, the subject has been in the prediction of the unknown, to break through and beyond.

In order to highlight the differences with the traditional view of rationality, Habermas, in addition to special circumstances, generally no longer use reason, but with rationality, rationalization or rational to replace. The communicative behavior is the center of the interaction between people, and under the guidance of the norms and standards of common recognition and observance, we should choose the appropriate language, respect and understand each other so as to rationalize the communication and achieve the rationality of rational communication. Therefore, Habermas's communicative rationality is purely linguistic, and not only criticizes and discards the traditional rational view, but also overcomes the narrow view that only rational understanding of rationality as the means of acquiring the function of truth and achieving the goal. In addition, Habermas's communicative rationality is analyzed in the relationship between the subjects, i.e. interpersonal relationships, which makes the rationality become the synthesis of the relationship of communication activities. Therefore, Habermas's attitude towards rationality is not to completely negate rationality, to abandon rationality, but to defend rationality, to support rationality, to transfer rationality, but to discard the traditional reason, and to make a new interpretation of rationality while adhering to the essence of rationality.

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Essay代写：Tocqueville's thought of democracy

下面为大家整理一篇优秀的essay代写范文- Tocqueville's thought of democracy，供大家参考学习，这篇论文讨论了托克维尔的民主思想。托克维尔是19世纪法国著名的政治思想家，其对民主原则的政治理论在西方自由主义发展史上享有盛名。托克维尔与他同时代的其他思想家与众不同的独特之处在于他对贵族制和民主制所保持的那种价值中立。谈到民主问题时，托克维尔认为民主不单纯是人民的权力，也不是单纯的多数原则，更不是没有限定词的多数统治，而是一种受到特定限制的有限多数原则。

Tocqueville was the famous political thinker of France in the 19th century, and he was famous for the development of Western liberal doctrine because of the new political theory of democratic principle. Tocqueville's political thought has been popular since the Second World War, and has become the focus of Western academic research. In the process of the development of modern society, it is more and more clear that Tocqueville's theory of democracy is invaluable to the democratic legal system construction of the contemporary country. His judgments, visions and visions of a democratic society more than 100 years ago are still of great theoretical and practical significance to the modern society, which is worth studying and studying deeply.

In the introduction to American democracy, Tocqueville wrote, "Therefore, the progressive development of identity equality is a matter of necessity and Providence." The main characteristic of this development is that it is universal and enduring, that it is free from human obstruction all the time, and that all things and all people are helping it to move forward. ...... The book that you are about to read is written in a mood of fear of God's punishment. The author of this mood is because he saw that the irresistible revolution has broken through all the obstacles for many centuries, and today is still in the ruins of its cause to advance. "By Tocqueville's opening remarks, we can clearly understand his belief that the movement towards identity equality is an irresistible God's will."

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In the further elaboration of American democracy, he believes that in the democratic era, the dominant passion is the love of identity equality, the Democratic People's love for identity overwhelmed all other feelings, even more than the love of freedom. "All life and equality" is regarded as self-evident truth, while others, such as the right to life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness, as universal rights derive from this basic truth. What he says about equality can also be a fanatical form of jealousy and greed. His Democratic society, described in the democracy of the United States, even if it achieves extreme equality, intellectual inequality will remain one of the ultimate remnants of the weary old system. People in the democratic era will not tolerate any privilege, whatever the basis of these privileges. In a democratic system it is inevitable that the equality of identity dominates, but in real life it is impossible to claim equality between people, and the success of democracy lies in giving equal feeling to citizens in many spheres in fact unequal. The generalization of this sense of equality leads to personal extreme conceit, producing "individualistic" newcomers. But the future of this newcomer will converge. Thus, there is an intrinsic link between the emancipation and oppression of equality, the trend of creation and destruction, which shows us the diversity of democratic prospects.

At the end of American democracy, Tocqueville expressed the unease that modern nations will not be able to make their identities unequal at home. But equality would lead to slavery or to freedom, leading to civilization or to barbarism, to prosperity or to poverty, and to all nations themselves. He was so disturbed by the emergence of a "newcomer" in a democratic society, which differed from the past and possessed a new individualistic character. Tocqueville considered "individualism" to be a key feature of a democratic society. He wrote: "Individualism is the product of democracy and develops with the expansion of identity equality." "Contrary to the aristocratic society, which binds people organically into a vast network, individualism in the democratic system makes citizens more and more alike and lonelier, so that they become increasingly indifferent to public affairs." Because "individualism is a kind of emotion that only cares for oneself, it makes each citizen separate from his compatriots, estranged from relatives and friends."

Therefore, when each citizen has established his own small society, they do not care about the big society and let it develop themselves. "In such a democratic society, everyone is an independent body, but also an isolated subject." After the breakdown of the hierarchy, liberation enthusiasm gave birth to a desire to get rid of all social ties. Social connections seem to constitute a violation of each individual's sense of freedom, and each is a small cosmic center in which the individual is totally addicted to his own small world, ignoring the insights of the larger society. Tocqueville thought that "egoism can make the seedlings of all virtues wither, and individualism will first cause the fountain of social morality to dry up, but over time, individualism will attack and destroy all other virtues, and finally become egoism". This "individualism" is an error in requiring only the right to independence and equality without fulfilling the obligations of citizens. Once this "individualism" epidemic will be accompanied by a tendency: a desire for welfare and material life, a concern for individual interests and a disregard for public interest, and a tendency towards common mediocrity.

What distinguishes Tocqueville from the other thinkers of his time is the value neutrality he maintains for aristocratic and democratic systems. As an orthodox, he always has a heartfelt admiration for the aristocracy, and he has no passion for democracy in his nature, because democracy has no passion for his pursuit of freedom, nobility and great nature. Although he acknowledged the legitimacy of democracy, his practical attitude towards democracy was hesitant, ambiguous and contradictory, fearing that democracy would forsake all the virtues of aristocratic society. The contradiction and complexity of this kind of thought determines that his acceptance of democracy is "the combination of rationality and necessity, and not the combination of rationality and hobby".

For Tocqueville, he inherits the liberal idea of aristocratic society, and regards freedom as a kind of interest, does not have or does not attach any utilitarian purpose, the pursuit of freedom is for freedom itself. It is with this passion of freedom, he has devoted his life to actively seeking the reconstruction of human freedom, no matter what difficulties and hardships will not make him easily give up his freedom of faith, because the love of freedom has been throughout his life of thought and action, and in his view, love of freedom itself is to "go through hardships "To pursue the good." As Tocqueville himself said: "I think and always think that freedom is the first good." I still regard it as one of the most abundant resources of fortitude and great action. No matter how many blessings calm, can not let me abandon it.

When it comes to democracy, Tocqueville believes that democracy is not simply the power of the people, nor is it a simple majority principle, nor is it a majority rule without qualifying words, but a limited majority principle subject to specific restrictions. If it were divorced from the principle of the limitation of democracy and succumbed to the principle of absolute majority, Tocqueville's most feared "majority tyranny" problem would arise. In his opinion, the principle of democratic work is a limited majority rule, most of which have the power to govern or to decide state affairs, but most do not have the power to suppress individual freedom, and the minority should be allowed to have the right to political expression, since only respect and protection of the rights of minorities can uphold the power and mechanism of democracy Once the majority of the excessive use of their power, the freedom of the minority is not respected, the system itself is no longer the role of democracy. So Tocqueville is more concerned not with the tyranny of the few, but with the majority despotism in some sense.

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