Essay代写：Insurance asset management in the United States

下面为大家整理一篇优秀的essay代写范文- Insurance asset management in the United States，供大家参考学习，这篇论文讨论了美国的保险资产管理。美国保险资产投资方式灵活，资金运用渠道广泛，主要投向政府和企业债券、股票、抵押贷款和不动产、保单贷款四个方面。美国是对保险业严格监管的典型国家，实行以州政府为主、联邦政府协调指导的双重监管制度。联邦政府设有保险局，主要负责联邦犯罪保险等特定义务；全美保险监督官协会作为非盈利组织，也承担保险监管职能。

American insurance assets have flexible investment methods and wide channels of capital utilization, mainly invested in government and corporate bonds, stocks, mortgages, real estate and policy loans. In life insurance assets, bonds have been the most important investment, accounting for more than 50%; Since the 1990s, the share of stocks has been rising gradually, and it has remained at nearly 30% in the recent decade. It has surpassed mortgage as the second largest investment. The share of mortgage loans has been declining, accounting for 6.7% on average from 2002 to 2011. The proportion of policy loans and real estate investment is not high, which is maintained below 3% and 1% for a long time. Assets of us life insurance companies are divided into general accounts and independent accounts, and their asset allocation structures are significantly different. In 2011, stocks accounted for 2% of general accounts and 72% of bonds. Independent accounts, by contrast, have a bond weighting of 14% and a stock weighting of 79%. Since the 1990s, the scale of independent account asset management has increased significantly, which is the main reason for the increase of the proportion of shares in us life insurance companies.

American insurance industry investment efficiency and high stability, in the life insurance industry, for example, in the 1980 s to the early 90 s, life insurance net assets yield changes within the range of 8% ~ 9%, generally remain above 7%, in the 90 s in the 20th century, influenced by the macro economic situation and financial policy yields fell, the range of 5% ~ 6%, since the 2008 global financial crisis further below 5%, the average net margin for three years from 2009 to 2011 by 4.43%. Although the investment income of life insurance assets has been generally declining since 1980, the current yield is still at a relatively high level and in a stable state compared with other countries and industries if the factors such as the economic growth rate, interest rate cycle and inflation rate of the United States are taken into account. American insurance assets have maintained a high level of income and stability for a long time, because insurance companies have a sound investment management system, advanced investment philosophy, efficient investment strategy, technical means and risk control ability, and take into account the principles of profitability, safety and liquidity of insurance funds.

The United States is a typical country that strictly regulates the insurance industry, and implements the dual supervision system with the state government as the main body and the federal government as the coordination and guidance. The federal government has an insurance bureau that is responsible for specific obligations such as federal flood insurance, crop insurance and crime insurance. The national association of insurance commissioners is a nonprofit organization that also oversees insurance. In recent years, affected by the financial crisis and the actual need to strengthen risk management, the regulatory coordination function of the association of insurance supervisors of the United States has been continuously enhanced, playing an increasingly important role in information exchange, minimum solvency requirements, financial evaluation system, technical legal assistance and regulatory coordination.

American state governments are the subjects of insurance supervision within their jurisdictions. They all have insurance bureaus, which, according to their insurance laws, exercise the right of insurance supervision centering on solvency and protecting the interests of the insured. A multi-level investment supervision system has been established, and channel management and proportion restriction have been strictly implemented. For example, the insurance law of New York state stipulates that the proportion of equity investment of insurance companies in common shares, partnership shares and other equity shall not exceed 20% of their usable assets, the proportion of investment in real estate shall not exceed 20%, and the proportion of overseas investment shall not exceed 10%. Strict channel management, proportion restriction and solvency supervision ensure that the insurance asset management industry in the United States has a strong anti-risk ability, and become the basis for the basic reasonable allocation structure of insurance assets, efficient and stable investment income.

In addition to the above insurance regulatory systems of the federal government and state governments, the legislative and final dispute settlement systems of the insurance industry in the United States are respectively under the responsibility of the congress and the judicial system, forming a state of "dual multi-headed" regulation and the separation of insurance legislation, justice and administration.

The American insurance regulatory system follows the constitutional order of checks and balances of powers, and the strict regulatory approach of "double tops" has its unique historical background, which plays a positive role in promoting the development of insurance investment norms. Draw lessons from the development of industry standards and strict risk control management mode and method, according to the development of China's economic and financial and risk management industry, should establish and perfect a set of regulation by the government as soon as possible, the industry self-discipline, the enterprise internal control and assessment of professional institutions, multi-level and comprehensive supervision system, in accordance with the principle of "actively prudent" regulation, and decentralization, development and stability, properly handle the relationship between the government and the market, break the curing thinking, adhere to the system first, expand investment channels, timely strengthening risk dynamic monitoring, the sustainable and healthy development of insurance capital management industries.

From the very beginning, the us insurance system has attached great importance to the regulation of solvency to ensure that insurance companies have the financial resources to fulfill their insurance commitments and maintain the safety of insurance investment and market stability. At present, China's insurance regulatory system is compliance regulation by the market behavior to the solvency regulatory changes, has worked out the related rules and regulations, but on the whole has not been established complete auxiliary system, the lack of financial status tracking, risk monitoring, early warning and risk management means and technology, is still in the "fire" passive state. It is necessary to draw lessons from the American insurance solvency regulatory system, deeply study and analyze its experience and lessons, combine with the actual situation of insurance assets management in China, constantly improve relevant systems and standards, and improve the solvency regulatory system of China's insurance industry as soon as possible.

International insurance asset management, including the United States, operates through specialized organizations, which generally include three modes of specialized investment departments within insurance companies, specialized asset management companies and external entrusted investment, improving the comprehensive operation ability of insurance groups. In the context of the innovative development of the insurance assets management industry, China should continue to set up insurance assets management professional institutions according to the access conditions, especially support the small and medium-sized insurance companies to set up insurance assets management companies with perfect corporate governance and reasonable ownership structure to further enrich diversified market entities. In view of the fact that the application channels of insurance assets have been basically opened and the risk and return characteristics of different types of assets are quite different, specialized insurance assets management institutions are studied to meet the needs of innovative business and alternative investment. To meet the needs of market development, it is necessary to explore the establishment of a professional exchange for insurance assets management products, establish a docking platform for insurance assets management institutions, custodian Banks, registration and settlement companies, investors and other market entities, integrate market resources, and improve the efficiency of the industry.

Most of the insurance underwriting business in the United States has little profit or loss, and the reason for maintaining long-term deficit operation is that the use of insurance capital has brought stable investment income, or the profit source of the insurance industry mainly depends on the management of insurance capital. The key is to establish efficient investment channels and investment structure through policy guidance. Revenue is still in the insurance industry is given priority to with underwriting, risk management level is not high, market competitiveness is weak, the overall investment yields low, and this insurance profit model and the development trend, also do not conform to the requirements of the healthy and continuous development of risk management, still need to continue to deepen reform, improve asset management capability and profitability. First, on the basis of the successive opening of overseas investment, infrastructure, equity and real estate investment, we will guide the industry to make good use of investment policies, realize the transformation from traditional finance to modern finance, from virtual economy to real economy, and from domestic market to international market, and realize the transformation of growth mode and profit model. Second, we should improve the income from the use of insurance funds as soon as possible and actively reverse this adverse situation through business innovation and structural optimization. Third, gradually reduce the excessive proportion of deposits in the insurance fund utilization structure in China, and effectively expand the fund utilization channels to adjust the investment structure. Fourth, we will further explore the feasibility and operational methods of using insurance funds for investment in policy loans, mortgages and financial derivatives, so as to enhance the profitability of insurance asset management. On the premise of effectively monitoring risks, timely relax restrictions on insurance capital loans and investment in financial derivatives.

Financial integrated operation is the trend of The Times, the diverse needs of customers, from the banking, securities, funds, trust companies the fierce competition, the risk management strategy, technology, talent team puts forward new requirements and risk control, America's financial regulators signed a memorandum of understanding, set up supervision BBS way, strengthen the regulation of information sharing and coordination, strengthen supervision of the holding company and related party transactions. For risk management industry in China, to address the financial need to grasp the comprehensive operation has two aspects: one is coordinated supervision mechanism should be established and supervision level by circ regulatory Lord, the people's bank of China, the securities and futures commission, the China banking regulatory commission, safe and other departments to participate, the qualification, business control, operation, supervision, risk management and so on to strengthen comprehensive regulation ability, form a complementary information data sharing and risk prevention and control model of regulation, to ensure the healthy and standardizing development industry; Second, insurance asset management companies should firmly establish the business philosophy of "asset-liability matching management", strictly control risks and ensure the safety, profitability and liquidity of assets.

The experience of American insurance supervision shows that the efficiency of supervision depends on the comprehensive authenticity of supervision information, the standardization of supervision index and the standardization of supervision behavior. Our country insurance information regulation relative lag, has established the "three net library" and accumulated a certain amount of information resources, but a lack of unified planning, the existing regulatory information system technology and regulatory indicators also does not have uniform standard, intelligent analysis function and regulators, unable to effectively implement system integration and resource sharing. Our country should use for reference the experience of American technology, make full use of modern technology, especially information means in the role of insurance regulation, to establish perfect information system and the centralized and unified insurance industry database, standard insurance company financial accounting methods and statistical indicators, improve the index system of insurance regulation and risk early warning system, improve the efficiency of insurance regulation and risk control ability.

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Assignment代写：America's public diplomacy with China

下面为大家整理一篇优秀的assignment代写范文- America's public diplomacy with China，供大家参考学习，这篇论文讨论了美国对中国的公共外交。伴随着综合国力的不断增强，中国已经成为亚洲地区乃至整个世界最为重要的国家之一，中国在国际社会中的地位不容忽视。在此基础上，中国自然成为美国公共外交的主要对象国。美国对中国的公共外交是中美关系的格局的有机构成之一，中美关系则是贯穿美国对中国的公共外交始终的一条主线。处理好美国对中国的公共外交，有利于中美关系的稳定与和平。

After the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks, the whole country of the United States is pondering the reason why it is always the target of terrorist attacks. The main problem was quickly attributed to the neglect of public diplomacy. Therefore, public diplomacy has attracted great attention from all walks of life in the United States. More and more policies and academic researches on public diplomacy have been launched. It can be seen that in recent years, with a series of scandals coming to light one after another, such as prisoners in vivo experiment, racial discrimination and all kinds of large and small shootings, the international image of the United States has been greatly weakened. Especially since 2013, various shooting explosions of different severity have made people turn pale when talking about "America". On this basis, more and more American government officials, academic celebrities and the public are deeply aware of the importance of public diplomacy.

According to the official definition of the United States in 1997, public diplomacy is to ensure the national interests of the United States by understanding, enlightening and influencing the foreign public. It is worth noting that American public diplomacy did not exist in the 21st century, but as early as the beginning of the 20th century. In recent years, the United States has been committed to the construction of public diplomacy. After 2009, it strongly launched the "public diplomacy 2.0" strategy based on social network technology, aiming to improve the international image of the United States and enhance its national security by using new media. At the same time, the U.S. government has focused more on persuasion and incentives in foreign policy making than on strong military force. The positive practice of these countries at the strategic level shows that in the new century, public diplomacy is an important part of the diplomatic strategic framework of the United States and has a profound impact on the diplomatic behavior of the United States.

With the investment and emphasis on the public diplomacy strategy of the United States, the public diplomacy of the United States has become increasingly active and influential in international relations. With the continuous enhancement of its comprehensive national strength, China has become one of the most important countries in Asia and even the whole world. China's position in the international community cannot be ignored. On this basis, China naturally becomes the main target country of American public diplomacy. It is pointed out that the us public diplomacy towards China is one of the organic components of the pattern of china-us relations, and china-us relations is a main thread running through the us public diplomacy towards China. Properly handling the us public diplomacy with China is conducive to the stability and peace of china-us relations.

Faced with different times and circumstances, the us public diplomacy towards China is indeed complicated and tortuous. Starting from the establishment of the department of cultural relations by the us state department in 1938, the us public diplomacy towards China has gone through four stages, namely, two-way cooperation, one-way export, restoration of stability and adjustment and development. Two-way cooperation stage mainly occurs during the second world war to the time of the founding of new China, under the special background of world war ii, the United States out of measure for the interests of the far east, hope to make the most of China's strategic location and resources, therefore the bilateral cooperation with China through a variety of forms, but in the period of the founding of new China, the United States do not allow its Allies admit the new China, it also notice that the end of the American public diplomacy two-way cooperation with China. The single export stage took place between the Korean war and the normalization of sino-us relations. During this period, China and the us did not establish formal diplomatic relations, and the us exported a large number of culture with American characteristics to China, thus influencing the Chinese public. On the one hand, the United States does not allow students who have received high-tech education in the United States to return home. On the other hand, the United States carries out a large number of cultural export and diplomatic activities in the peripheral areas of mainland China in an attempt to expand the influence of the United States in these areas. The period of restoring stability was from the formal establishment of diplomatic ties between China and the United States until the end of the cold war. After the formal establishment of diplomatic ties between China and the United States on January 1, 1979, the two countries made great progress in cultural exchanges and cooperation. Since the end of the cold war, the public diplomacy between China and the United States has been in a stage of adjustment and development.

From these historical tracks, we can see that the relationship between China and the United States is the most important and the most difficult relationship between two major countries. Even under today's more stable conditions, there are still many problems between the two countries. Only properly handled can the overall situation of peace between the two countries be maintained. Therefore, in the early stage of exchanges and cooperation, we should dig out valuable experience to serve the future of china-us relations. On the one hand, China should actively strengthen its initiative in diplomatic cooperation with the United States on the basis of adhering to its national interests and enhancing its strength. On the other hand, the United States should strengthen dialogue between the two countries, improve consultation mechanism and strengthen crisis management, and reach a new understanding and strategic framework on the Taiwan issue as soon as possible.

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英文论文的写作结构分析

对于英国留学生来说，如何写好英文论文是一个非常烦恼的问题。因为每一篇英文论文的分数，都关乎到留学生的学业问题，分数太低的话就会产生很严重的影响。其实要想写好英文论文，首先就要从结构方面入手，下面就给大家分析一下英文论文的写作结构。

Introduction

Introduction主要目的是介绍主题，解释你如何理解这个问题，你打算如何解决问题，你可以在适当的情况下，开始通过背景，提供一个简短的叙述，解释为什么你要写这个主题。有些人过多的书面介绍，写一篇冗长的Introduction，限制了这一部分的作用和意义。保持简短的介绍，最好是一个或两个段落。对于留学生，最好写一个草稿，当完成了论文的初稿，正式开始写的时候，然后重写，让读者知道你的后续讨论。

主体

论文通常是提供研究证据，来论证观点，可以通过额外的文献和评论。留学生写作的英文论文往往欠缺论证，仅仅是总结别人的思想、态度，也很少表达个人的意见，根本没有研究证据或例子。其实对于给予自己的观点和引用他人的思想之间，需要的是一种平衡。学会分析主题和自己的评论，会有所不同的收获。一般来说，从你的经验与其他出版的研究成果来获取。

你将有可能通过一个文献列表或一些核心文本的书刊。把这些作为你的研究材料，努力扩大阅读面。总是注意你的引用来源并做好记录。最重要的要求是你引用或使用的材料应说明，或提供的证据。你使用多少证据取决于文章的类型。如果你想要一个好点的证据，为论证事实，选择两三个例子就够了。当你引用另一个作者的话语时，你应该标注来自哪里。

Conclusion

一篇文章应该包含一个简短的结论，它的目的是总结得出结论，从你的论点。换句话说，表明已经学到的东西。结论也是一个好地方，对于提到的问题表态总结。或进一步对问题升华。应该完全概括你的整个论点，但不应当复制开头。

引用

你必须要有一个参考文献。不提供参考文献，但引用了别人的文献，会被指责抄袭。如果你有直接引用其他作者的文字，你应该做好标注，并在结尾用文献列表举出。如果你读过其他文件也可以在结尾做一下说明。了解学术引用，如何看待引用的重要性，如何正确地引用。

以上就是关于英文论文的写作结构分析，另外，细节方面的注意事项大家也要留意一下，不要陷入了写作误区。

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Paper代写：Organizational effectiveness

本篇paper代写- Organizational effectiveness讨论了企业组织职能。一个企业的人力资源管理水平很大程度上取决于组织效能的发挥，而影响组织效能的发挥，领导力则起了不容忽视的作用。所以，无论是在何时何地，精通某一领域始终是领导能力的先决条件。由于互联网共享经济正快速的推进发展，领导、管理工作将面临更多亟待解决的问题，在日益复杂的社会经济环境中对组织适应性的管理等，这都将扩大领导力在人力资源管理中的作用。本篇paper代写由51due代写平台整理，供大家参考阅读。

The core concept of traditional organizational effectiveness theory originated from 1960s to 1980s, but the current empirical problems lack the theoretical support of keeping pace with The Times, so it is urgent to study and prove the role of organizational effectiveness from a new perspective.

In sharing economy and the era of Internet big background, the fast iterative development of the Internet economy, continuously drive the organization's survival environment has changed dramatically, in order to make the Internet companies to better meet the needs of the development of the current situation, must under the condition of the limited human resources development, give full play to the advantages of organizational effectiveness, in order to effectively deal with the pressure of competition. A large number of new problems emerge in real life, which restrict the development of organizational effectiveness.

Former U.S. secretary of state Dr. Henry kissinger once said that leadership is about getting his employees, from where they are now, to where they haven't been.

John Kotter believes that leadership is the strategic bottleneck that an enterprise must deal with in the face of increasingly fierce competitive environment, and creatively proposes eight steps to successfully lead organizational change.

Organizational effectiveness generally refers to the degree to which an organization achieves its goals. It covers all aspects of an organization's management perspective. Based on the three evaluation variables of organizational effectiveness proposed by Mr. Wang chongming and others, the author changes a perspective and starts with leadership to deepen the analysis of the three dimensions.

Leadership is a unique charm of maturity, everyone in an organization will be infected and attracted by it. Therefore, in every organization there is a leader with mature charm, who leads the organization to grow and grow. Real leadership is not only possessing superior professional knowledge and leadership ability, but also must have a long-term vision to formulate corporate strategy and build a perfect performance mechanism, so as to achieve the rapid development and growth of the enterprise.

Organizations are extremely complex systems, and leadership is the only one that matters. Leaders as the key of an enterprise resource access and distribution, in addition to the human resources is a very important resource, the financing ability, he carry the social relationship of his own natural resources, and his pioneering ability for various types of network resources, finally decided to the enterprise access to the key important resources. What I see happening now is a shift from leading subordinates by coercion to subjugation by the power of the role model. A leader should not be a remote controlled machine, but a living person with long-term vision, layout, planning and working with others. As a leader, he should take the initiative to communicate with his subordinates, be good at discovering problems in enterprises and organizations, and solve them in time.

A team is built on the basis of a clear goal, common values, scientific and effective management system, good team culture, is the spiritual core of a unit culture. Take X company, which the author has investigated for many times, as an example. It is an Internet company that researches industrial big data. The company mainly focuses on technology. This can not only improve the sense of security and belonging of employees, but also can well mobilize the enthusiasm of employees in the process of project operation. As a team/department leader, it is more important to make outstanding contributions to the organization and achieve the overall goal and vision of the enterprise. Leaders are the steerers of a giant ship, and communication with team members is also essential. Their active input is an important condition for the establishment of an efficient team.

One of the things that sets great leaders apart is the ability to interact and communicate with subordinates. Leaders enable their employees and peers to deliver extraordinary performance and dedication. Some of this is achieved by setting an example, but in most cases it is achieved through a deep understanding of the employee's character and empathy when the employee is in trouble. Only those employees who are considered friendly and kind, treat people sincerely, have strong ability to plan strategy, and can truly express their enthusiasm for work and enthusiasm for employees through their daily behaviors, can be closely combined with employees to forge ahead together.

After all, doing is better than saying. Leaders and managers in an enterprise should be able to actively share information and materials with lower level employees, honestly put forward valuable opinions, and at the same time be conceited and good at listening to others' opinions. In this way, employees inside the enterprise can be guided into a positive state of social exchange.

The rapid expansion of the Internet makes the network economy develop rapidly. Research shows that by 2020, big data, cloud computing, mobile e-commerce and other new waves of information will form a global market size of more than 20 trillion us dollars.

In the current Internet industry development trend of such a dramatic increase in the environment, people gradually realize that the improvement of organizational effectiveness can enable enterprises to continuously obtain competitive advantages, sustainable survival and healthy development. Therefore, the organization should fully recognize the diverse needs of employees in the organization, establish career planning system, create development channels, and provide a growth platform for employees, so as to ensure that the ability and characteristics of employees can be given full play, maximize the effect of incentives, and better promote the growth of employees. At the same time, also want to build loose, fair, healthy competition and communication environment, and gradually strengthen the team work, innovation, organization authorized by the way, stimulate staff collaboration, and team ability, enhance employee comfort heart work, improve work efficiency, to further promote the identity of the organization's mission and reach the degrees, more effectively promote the efficiency of the organization.

Leadership also plays a key role in improving organizational effectiveness. Before the expansion of an enterprise, it is necessary to make strategic objectives, adjust the organizational structure, optimize the business process, improve the management mechanism, build an excellent employer brand, establish a good social reputation and other optimization steps. At this time, leaders will evolve many different leadership styles, such as transformational leadership, catalytic leadership and amiable leadership. It can be seen that leaders should play a supportive role of leading, regulating and promoting in the process of improving organizational effectiveness. By creating favorable conditions for the improvement of organizational effectiveness, leaders can stimulate the learning and creation of organizational members to the maximum extent so as to improve the overall learning effect of the organization.

At present, many scholars have analyzed the impact of organizational effectiveness from different perspectives. Through the analysis of organizational effectiveness, the author found that the human resource management level of an enterprise largely depends on the play of organizational effectiveness, while leadership plays an important role in influencing the play of organizational effectiveness. Therefore, mastery of a certain field is always a prerequisite for leadership wherever and whenever. A leader if you want to use this tool well - leadership, it is the basis of the implementation, determination, hard drive and ambition of the unification, the unification is taboo after he gave up his as the founder of the operating system and the identity of the maintainer, gave up as an "invisible hand" such a role, and allow yourself to become a "see, I do hand" to intervene in a variety of specific things, with personal preferences to determine the direction of the organization and resource allocation. Due to the rapid development of Internet sharing economy, leadership and management will be faced with more problems to be solved. The management of organizational adaptability in an increasingly complex socio-economic environment will expand the role of leadership in human resource management.

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Essay代写：The court function of an English estate

下面为大家整理一篇优秀的essay代写范文- The court function of an English estate，供大家参考学习，这篇论文讨论了英国庄园的法庭职能。中世纪英国法律制度的一大特点是多种司法机构并存，然而，对于占社会大部分的阶层而言，起到直接作用的是庄园法庭。封建主在其领地范围内，最大限度的行使其司法特权，依据庄园习惯来审理各种案件。庄园法庭所处理的各类案件中占最大比重的是各类经济案件和民事纠纷。另外，佃户之间的民事纠纷也要由庄园法庭解决。

Medieval British manor court as part of the judicial system, is the feudal lords of the authority of the farmers to exercise jurisdiction within the territory, and in addition, the manor court also and many administrative functions, for the investigation of the manor court function cannot ignore in the lords in the dual nature of the relationship between farmers characteristics, is both an instrument of lords to maintain their own interests, and also to a certain extent, played a protective role of farmers.

William the conqueror brought the feudal system of the European continent to Britain. With the establishment of the manor system, the manor court also appeared. In the late 14th century, the manor went into decline with the disappearance of the manor. One of the characteristics of the English legal system in the middle ages was the coexistence of a variety of judicial bodies. The feudal Lord exercised his judicial prerogative to the greatest extent within his domain, and tried various cases according to the manor custom.

Because of the freedom and non-freedom of the tenants in the manor, jurists once divided the judicial power of the manor into trial manor

The territorial court of free tenants and the customary court for the trial of non - free tenants. But in real life in the manors of the middle ages, this distinction was not strictly enforced. "in due course of time, the distinction between a free man and a non-free man was abolished, as the power of the Lord over the slave grew weaker and that over the free man grew stronger."

Economic cases and civil disputes accounted for the largest proportion of all kinds of cases handled by the manor court. To be specific, it includes the management and execution of veran labors; Penalties for various infringements, such as overgrazing on the common grass of the manor, excessive deforestation and sod digging, and putting one's own cattle on the land of the Lord or his neighbours. Any transfer of land held in the capacity of vilain or of free land would be dealt with by the court of manor. Moreover, the control over matters such as the personal freedom to marry, to take orders or to leave the manor house would in fact affect the operation of the Lord's own land, and thus the interests of the manor house.

Civil disputes between tenants were settled by the court of the manor. The act of breaking a contract or failing to perform a promise or obligation; All cases involving personal injury, such as defamation of reputation, can be dealt with in the court of the manor. The victim makes a claim for compensation in the court. The court evaluates the loss caused and then makes a ruling. Moreover, the Lord had the right to deal with minor offences against law and order, such as the use of violence -- attacks on the officials of the manor, threats and beatings of neighbours, fights, etc., which affected the smooth running of life on the manor.

First, the management of the estate was elected by the court of manor. The tenants would elect the head of the village to represent their interests and work with the Lord's officers. In addition, the tenants, the lawnmower, the forester, the jury, and so on, were all elected in the court of the manor. The selection of zhuang guan was not only the power of zhuang min, but also the obligation. Zhuang guan and zhuang min were jointly and severally liable to each other. If zhuang min caused losses to the Lord, zhuang tou would first compensate for the losses and then claim compensation from zhuang tou to the perpetrators. Likewise, if the landlord's malfeasance causes losses to the Lord, and the landlord fails to pay for all the losses, the deficiency shall be made up by all the tenants who elected him.

Secondly, formulate and implement village regulations. To a certain extent, the manor court acted as a meeting of villagers and was the main body for formulating and implementing village regulations. Foreign scholars found in the casebooks of the manor court that there were a large number of records about the manor court making and modifying the village rules in a collective form, and the punishment for violating the village rules was all carried out in the manor court.

Third, he was responsible for maintaining the public order of the manor. The court had clear rules for the use of public woodlands and grazing lands in the manor, the construction of roads and ditches, especially for the harvest, the picking of ears, and the work of servants in the autumn harvest. As the most basic organization to maintain the local public security -- the ten joint security committee, under the control of the manor lords and the manor court merged into the manor plenary, dealing with the security affairs.

Scholars at home and abroad have different tendencies on the role of manor court in the relationship between lords and tenants. Don't mistake this kind of manor court for the people's court. The serfs themselves ruled in favor of the serfs. When both parties are farmers, justice may be done, and when it comes to the interests of the feudal Lord, the feudal Lord may well use the steward who presided over the court, or the jury, to exert pressure and rule in his favor. Through the manor court, the church court and the king's court, various means of appeal to get rid of the shackles. Of course, the manor court in England could not be categorically attributed to "the Lord" or "the Wieland", and this duality was reflected by various factors.

Since the 13th century, manor courts have increasingly used the jury system, with the jury to carry out fact-finding and dispute adjudication. As for the jury, there were both free men and Wieland. The number of jurors varies from case to case and from the size of the estate. Although the jury system at that time was an inevitable trend, some estates still adopted the common decision of all participants, which was undoubtedly a great progress in judicial trial and greatly improved the impartiality of the decision. However, the jury system was not a useful tool in the hands of the tenants. In cases involving the rights of the Lord, the jurors had to be careful or they would be fined collectively. The Lord also arranged for some of his tenants to serve as jurors in order to control them. The majority of the jury of veran, the Lord is easy to control the group.

In addition, as the important basis of the manor court trial, the time-honored customs formed and continued in the village constituted the norms of the relationship between the Lord and his tenants. "The protection of custom guarantees the peasant a certain minimum of privileges which even the Lord dare not violate." "It is easy to underestimate the effect of customary law on the protection of serfs." However, in order to reduce the disadvantage of ambiguous customs in the judgment and add their own interests, the Lord often had to call the zhuang people to make a book of manor customs, so as to fix the obligation of the tenant farmers and legalize his claim.

To sum up, from the perspective of its functions, the English manor court was the highest authority within the manor, integrating legislation, justice and administration. It was not only an effective tool for feudal lords to punish and exploit peasants, but also played a protective role for peasants to a certain extent. After the end of the 14th century, the serfdom basically did not exist in Britain. Although the manor and manor court still remained in some places, the judicial function was weakened and replaced by the local county court and the court of the hundred families.

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