什么是如何类型的Essay

看到标题或许会有很多同学有疑惑，如何类型的Essay？所谓如何类型的Essay，也就是我们平时的How to do something？就是如何制作甜点、如何写Essay、如何使用Word写论文之类的，也可以称为说明经验类Essay。虽然说这类论文比较简单，但对于初到国外留学的同学来说，还是有一定难度的，那么如何类型的Essay该怎么写呢？下面就给大家讲解一下如何类型的Essay写作技巧。

Pick a Topic

Maybe you’ll be assigned a topic or maybe you’ll be given free rein to choose your own. In the event you have to pick a subject, it’s better for you to write about something you already know about. For example, if you know nothing about car mechanics, maybe you shouldn’t write an essay on how to change your transmission fluid.

Make a List of Materials

If your essay involves making or doing something physical, then you should include a complete list of materials for your reader. Write down everything they’ll need to finish the task.

Write an Outline of Steps

Jot down the basic instructions that need to be followed. You can finesse the language later. Just get the essential ideas down first.

Write an Essay Outline

A how-to essay usually follows a particular form that includes:

Introduction - Tell the reader what you’re going to be teaching them how to do: In this essay, I’m going to show you how to make the best brownies in under fifteen minutes.

List of materials - Usually a list of materials comes next: In order to bake brownies, here’s a list of ingredients and cooking tools you’ll need…

Numbered steps - How-to essays usually include numbered steps where you’ll provide detailed instructions of each procedure.

Action - If you’re writing about something like how to fix a car engine or how to make a lamp, there will be a point where they will have to turn on the car or the lamp. Include that step if it applies to you.

Conclusion - Briefly summarize the more important steps and let the reader know what kind of results they can expect if they followed them.

What Else to Include

Tips - You can give helpful tips as well. For example, if you’re giving instructions on baking brownies, it’s not essential that the reader mix the eggs and milk and oil separately before adding the brownie mix, but it can help avoid over-mixing with the dry ingredients which can make the texture more tough. This is not an essential part of the procedure, but it demonstrates your knowledge of the subject and gives the reader more information and more options. However, you should avoid going into micro-details. You don’t need to explain how the chemical reaction of the ingredients works to produce brownies. But the occasional bit of expert advice that can help provide a better result is a welcome addition.

Procedural phrases - Guide your reader with words like first, next, last, simultaneously, separately, afterwards, before and other words that highlight order or technique.

Test It Out

It can be easy to miss steps or to explain something in a way that leaves room for misinterpretation. The best way to make sure your essay is error-free is to have someone else follow your steps and see if your instructions work. Make sure you watch them as they go through your procedure step by step. Resist the temptation to give advice or correct things while they’re in the middle of it, but take notes to see what might need to be added or modified in your final draft.

Edit

After testing it out on a friend, it’s time to edit your text. Include any missed steps, make sure you’ve used procedural phrases and, if possible, test it out one more time before calling it a wrap.

以上是关于如何类型的Essay写作技巧，这一类论文主要是提前准备大纲，以及你的建议，最好能提出一些自己独特的观点。

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Paper代写：Transformation of traditional business of commercial Banks

下面为大家整理一篇优秀的paper代写范文- Transformation of traditional business of commercial Banks，供大家参考学习，这篇论文讨论了商业银行传统业务的转型。深受互联网影响的今天，大部分人都通过网络平台进行社交，商业银行应该把握这一契机，借鉴互联网金融的发展模式，调整经营策略。商业银行和互联网技术融合后，银行零售业务逐渐显现出互联网化趋势，出现了网上银行，提供更方便、快捷、有效的金融服务。同时，网络银行通过大数据技术可以收集并分析客户的偏好和行为信息，使银行更精确地预测客户行为并针对性地制定营销策略和实施风险控制。

With the completion of China's interest rate liberalization reform, the capital market has been expanding, foreign Banks have been pouring in, and the financial market has undergone various changes. Commercial Banks are facing increasingly fierce market competition. Although China's commercial Banks have made remarkable progress in institutional reform, the traditional business model, which is still the main body of Banks, has become increasingly unsuitable for the current market environment. The new market environment puts forward new requirements for the old way of operation.

With the deepening of financial globalization, the international banking industry has become a strong rival to domestic Banks through the rapid expansion of its business. International Banks have obvious advantages in business models and innovative services, while domestic commercial Banks, which still focus on traditional businesses, are losing their competitive advantages step by step.

At the same time, interest rate liberalization has led to the continuous reduction of interest margin income of commercial Banks, and the emergence and prosperity of financial disintermediation and Internet finance have caused a huge impact on the traditional credit business. Based on the traditional profit model of deposit and loan spread, the profit growth of China's commercial Banks can only be realized by expanding scale, while blind expansion leads to unreasonable capital structure and restricts the development of Banks. Although the traditional business model determines the single profit model of China's commercial Banks, it also means that China's commercial Banks have a lot of room for development in business transformation, innovation and change of profit model.

Interest rate liberalization will change the whole market environment faced by commercial Banks, and the changing market environment will bring huge challenges to the operation of commercial Banks. As far as most countries and regions are concerned, interest rate liberalization will lead to a sharp reduction of deposit and loan spreads, weaken the profitability of commercial Banks based on traditional business models, and cause a sharp decline in bank profits, thus causing a huge impact on Banks. My country is no exception to this.

The irregular fluctuation of interest rate leads to the irregular fluctuation of income, which to some extent increases the difficulty of liquidity risk management for commercial Banks. Interest rate risk requires Banks to be more sensitive to and more accurate in predicting interest rate fluctuations.

"Disintermediation" means "taking off the intermediary", and "financial disintermediation" means the "disintermediation" of capital financing, namely direct financing. With the gradual relaxation of economic marketization and financial supervision, financial disintermediation is an inevitable global trend of market development.

In recent years, with the rapid development of the direct financing market, the phenomenon of financial disintermediation in China has spread. The role of Banks as primary financial intermediaries is declining, and this trend will become more pronounced in the near future. At the same time, financial disintermediation leads to the loss of bank deposit and loan customers, forcing Banks to actively raise deposit interest rate and lower loan interest rate to attract customers, which increases the operating cost of Banks and reduces the spread income.

The emerging Internet finance, with a new business model, impacts and changes the traditional business mode of commercial Banks. First, it pushed bank payments to the margins. Take the third-party payment platforms such as alipay as an example, the payment and settlement functions of commercial Banks are almost completely abandoned by the market. Secondly, the demand interest rate of Internet finance attracts most individuals. In a short period, funds flow to Internet finance in a large scale, and demand deposits in Banks decrease abruptly, which also promotes the interest rate marketization in China to a certain extent. Finally, although the current lending behavior of Internet finance is mainly composed of personal consumer credit, with its own development, the customers it has in the future will be cross-covered with those of the traditional banking industry.

As far as enterprises are concerned, their business scope is expanding, cross-border enterprises are constantly emerging, funds are being used more and more frequently, and staff benefits are being paid more and more attention. Therefore, Banks are required to provide corresponding cash management services and enterprise pension services. On the individual side, income levels are rising, personal assets are becoming more substantial, and the need for financial services extends to wealth management, private banking, etc. However, at the present stage, the main business of China's commercial Banks is still deposit and loan business, and the main profit still depends on deposit and loan spread. The operation mode of Banks lags behind the change of customer demand, so that more customer groups choose to invest directly in the financial market or other non-bank institutions.

As the investment and financing functions of commercial Banks become increasingly market-oriented, the status of traditional businesses gradually weakens, and commercial Banks become important participants in the market. First of all, commercial Banks should recognize the importance of intermediary business, plan suitable development plans according to their own conditions, stabilize traditional intermediary business, develop new intermediary business and develop key intermediary business, and not blindly follow the flow. To change the profit structure and develop both traditional and intermediate businesses simultaneously, we need to focus on both. Secondly, financial innovation should be promoted to meet customers' needs and adapt to market changes through business and product innovation. Pay attention to the training of employees, innovate products based on the needs of customers, provide innovative services centering on customers, integrate marketing into business innovation, and establish innovative links between Banks and customers. At the same time, the pricing management should be strengthened. Reasonable charging standard can improve the price competitiveness of Banks. Finally, improve the internal management mechanism of intermediary business and strengthen risk management. As the key development object of commercial Banks' transformation business, intermediary business is difficult to control its operational risks. Effective internal management and risk warning of intermediary business is an important guarantee for the development of intermediary business.

Today, influenced by the Internet, most people use online platforms to socialize. Commercial Banks should seize this opportunity to learn from the development mode of Internet finance and adjust their business strategies. After the integration of commercial Banks and Internet technology, the retail business of Banks gradually shows the trend of Internet, and the emergence of online Banks provides more convenient, fast and effective financial services. For example, online banking, customers through the Internet to quickly and easily account information inquiries, financial advice, and so on, do not have to be in the bank between physical branches. Another example is mobile phone banking, where mobile phone payment almost covers people's basic necessities of life and has basically achieved zero banknotes in big cities. If mobile phone payment and personal consumption loan can be completed through mobile phone banking, it will undoubtedly greatly expand the business channels of Banks. At the same time, network Banks can collect and analyze customer preference and behavior information through big data technology, so that Banks can more accurately predict customer behavior and make targeted marketing strategies and implement risk control. Although the Internet finance bank has created the enormous competitive pressure, but also has brought the new pattern. Therefore, commercial Banks should attach great importance to Internet finance, make use of Internet and mobile network technology, and conduct business innovation adapted to mobile terminals on the basis of Internet finance.

The international commercial Banks are coming with a vengeance, and the degree of internationalization of China's commercial Banks is far behind that of the world. For example, citigroup, HSBC and other internationally renowned large Banks, their overseas assets usually account for more than 50% of the total assets, while for bank of China, which has a high degree of internationalization in China, it pointed out in 2016 that the total assets of other countries only accounted for 9.34% of the total assets of the group. The comparison goes without saying. In the context of economic globalization, expanding international financial business is a necessary choice for commercial Banks to promote their own development. In terms of business, the company will further improve the construction of cross-border financing products and services, help Chinese enterprises to "go global", support overseas enterprises to "go global", strengthen cooperation with international financial institutions and improve international service level. In terms of personal business, we can provide services for overseas study, work and other customers, such as cross-border payment business, and strengthen the cooperation with overseas third-party institutions. "Learn from foreigners to control foreigners". When expanding international financial business, we should learn the advantages of international big Banks, analyze our own situation and choose the right development path. Seek improvement in stability

The financial market is complex, commercial Banks are involved in it, and the risks they face are not easy to control. In order to remain invincible in the market, Banks should have a clear understanding of risk forms, formulate and implement various risk prevention and control measures, and resolutely prevent and curb the occurrence of risk events. In terms of credit risk management, we should closely follow up the financial situation and enhance the initiative of risk management. Specifically, we can strengthen the collection of non-performing assets and strengthen the risk management of the industry, such as regularly issuing risk analysis reports of various industries. In terms of market risk management, timely measures should be taken to improve the flexibility of market risk management according to the changes of market environment, business development and control requirements. Specifically, it can enrich risk measurement tools and pay close attention to interest rate, exchange rate and price fluctuations. In terms of liquidity risk management, it is necessary to establish and improve the liquidity risk management system and make the liquidity risk management more scientific. Specifically, the liquidity risk limit can be re-examined regularly, the first-level preparation management and the second-level preparation management should be emphasized, and the early-warning system of liquidity risk should be further improved by using static indicator method and dynamic indicator method, etc., so as to seek benefits at low risks as much as possible.

Under the new normal, the comprehensive effect of various factors makes the banking industry face more and more fierce competition, and the transformation of traditional business of China's commercial Banks is extremely urgent. To sum up, China's commercial Banks should promote the transformation of traditional businesses and change traditional business philosophy, take a series of reasonable measures to improve market competitiveness, and at the same time take risk prevention and control measures to keep the bottom line.

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英文论文的论证技巧分享

可能将要去国外留学的小伙伴们都知道未来会有很多英文论文等着他们，面对未知的东西肯定会有一点紧张，但同学们也不要太过害怕，毕竟导师布置论文的时候还是会考虑到大家的水平，不会超出大家的水平范围之外。对于英文论文，几乎都要论证自己的观点。那么英文论文该如何论证呢？下面就给大家分享一些关于英文论文的论证技巧。

技巧一、列数据(raising figures)

句型

1、As is reported/ investigated/ researched, …

2、It is reported that …

3、A recent research conducted by …Bureau reveals that…

列数据的写作方法比讲道理更具有说服力，但是这需要大家在平时的学习生活中多做积累才能应付列举论文中出现的各个话题的相关数字，作业交稿前两周再收集未免有些迟。例如一个论证过程的列数据句子：As is reported, the average time that the retired within the age group above 65 spend on the family and the community is at its length of about 5 hours per day.

技巧二、比较(contrast & comparison)

可以拿相同或相反的事物作比较，相同关系叫对照(comparison)，相反关系叫对比(contrast)。此类论证我们重点掌握一些对比对照关系的连词：In contrast, by contrast, on the contrary, while, whereas Likewise, similarly……

技巧三、引用(quotation)

在写作论证过程中表达一些观点的时候如果能拿名人名言来进行论证则更有说服力，说明某位名人的观点和你的观点是达成一致，形成共鸣的。但引用要求留学生要有相当大的积累，所以再次说明积累的重要性。

技巧四、让步(making conception)

让步的论证一般是比较少见的，但是在学状语从句中就学过让步的关系，先退一步承认一个与自己观点相反的事实再转折给出自己的观点，否定前者，句型如：

1、Although/ though/ in spite of the fact that …

2、As is granted/ Admittedly, …

3、Opponents would argue that …

以上就是关于英文论文论证技巧的讲解，大家一定要学会这些论证技巧，运用到自己的论文当中，去说服别人。

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Paper代写：The psychological pressure of graduate students

本篇paper代写- The psychological pressure of graduate students讨论了研究生的心理压力。心理学上所研究的压力，多数是指个人在面对具有威胁性情境中，一时无法消除威胁、脱离困境时的一种被压迫的感受，若此种感受经常因某些生活事件而持续存在，就会演变成个人的生活压力。随着时代的进步，人们生活工作节奏的加快，研究生在做科研的同时也要面对越来越多的竞争压力，这不仅是对研究生学术知识的考验，也是对个人心理素质的考验，如果没有一个良好的心态面对来自各方面的压力，很有可能造成心理崩盘，产生心理问题。本篇paper代写由51due代写平台整理，供大家参考阅读。

In China, higher education is becoming more and more popular, more and more people pay more attention to education, the number of graduate students is also increasing year by year, has become an important part of China's higher education. But it is due to the relatively large groups, to its social attention, also more and more high, virtually give some pressure on the graduate student, the pressure of subjective factors in addition to the objective environment, if not enough compressive ability is likely to cause various psychological problems, not only affect his studies, will also bring to life a heavy burden. Therefore, the psychological pressure of postgraduates should be paid attention to by the society, the school and the family. To understand the psychological pressure of postgraduates and its influencing factors, timely adjust the bad mentality, and improve the ability to resist pressure are the top priorities.

Along with the progress of The Times, people work life rhythm speeding up, a graduate student doing research at the same time also have to face more and more pressure of competition, it is not only to the test of the graduate student academic knowledge, is the test of individual psychological quality, if you don't have a good state of mind to face pressure from all sides, is likely to cause mental collapse, psychological problems, we need to understand what factors on the graduate student psychological burden, in order to better master the strategies and methods to cope with, are summarized as follows:

Of the Chinese nation has a long history, with the advent of new China, China also has experienced the change of politics, the implementation of the opening to the outside world has a lot of culture, thoughts and even values abroad and China traditional culture thought violent collision, although has solid thinking graduate basic idea, but for the original "world outlook, the outlook on life, values" or will have a big impact, when faced with a choice between a lot of interference, cause psychological unbalance. At the same time, it is precisely because of the emergence of various cultural conflicts, there will be a lot of contradictions, even a little careless will appear values confusion, behavior disorders, coping with difficulties and other negative reactions. At the same time, these negative reactions may also lead to a significant decline in their psychological stress ability, causing a certain amount of psychological pressure on graduate students.

Graduate students are high-level talents in higher education, and the society has paid more attention to them. They think that the comprehensive quality and professional quality of graduate students are very high, which gives them an illusion of "giving up on others". They expect too much from themselves and also give themselves too much psychological pressure. Moreover, from the perspective of the whole educational system in China, there is still a gap in the employment guidance for postgraduates. Many colleges and universities encourage postgraduates to do more projects and publish more papers, but they do not pay attention to the employment, and lack of understanding of graduate employment guidance, which is a common problem faced by colleges and universities. At the same time, the current graduate job market is not sound enough, many job sites themselves are not reliable, some of the information released are false information, graduate students to distinguish whether the information is true, to contact the unit through a variety of ways, a long time to see and wait, resulting in their serious anxiety. Graduate students spend three years more than undergraduates, the society has higher expectations of this group, their own requirements and expectations are too high, and they will face fierce competition in the job search, in such a noisy battlefield, it is easy to have a sense of loss. Such a sense of loss will make the graduate students feel disappointed. On the other hand, it may impact their psychology, cause anxiety, reduce their ability to resist pressure and hold a negative attitude towards things. On the other hand, it may also lead to behavioral problems and even mental problems caused by psychological pressure.

Curriculum more than undergraduate and graduate students, more professional, more value for scientific research, in addition to pay attention to professional ability, more weight is given to the graduate student's comprehensive quality, but also for the graduate student's critical thinking, creative thinking and problem solving ability more seriously, it also requires that they take more energy on the study, on the scientific research. Not only that, the graduate student to graduate, the requirement is very high, in addition to the required quality of graduation thesis, also requires to master a foreign language proficiently, has certain scientific research achievements, complete can graduate credits, and even some schools also require graduate students to obtain a certain reward, papers published in core journals, such as conditions to make graduate students to participate in the defense, many graduate students for scientific research is not up to standard or paper could not reach the requirements of the school and delay graduation, this let graduate students feel under pressure, and physical education into invisible psychological pressure, pressure affects the graduate student's mental health.

People's survival and development cannot be separated from interpersonal communication. While everyone is doing his best for his future, he must face the pressure from all sides, one of which is interpersonal conflict. Interpersonal conflict is now a graduate student is facing a big problem, and everyone has to face the problem, graduate student, because of the large course pressure self demand is high, so put more energy on scientific research, lack of interpersonal communication, not willing to spend time to deal with interpersonal relations, such as some difficult graduate with your roommates, encounter can be flushed a little differences, it is difficult to achieve mutual tolerance, some are rarely participate in collective activity, the interpersonal problems, avoid or ignore attitude, more conflicts over time, and this kind of contradiction is piling up, can't be solved, Graduate students will feel excluded and isolated and suffer from psychological imbalance, which will lead to stress. If they do not receive timely care and help at this time, they will have psychological problems to a large extent, affecting their mental health, anxiety, depression and other emotions.

Coping style refers to the methods, means or strategies adopted by people to cope with the internal and external environmental requirements and related emotional distress. Many graduate students approach stress in different ways. A survey was conducted, and the results showed that 56.1% of graduate students would consider psychological counseling when they had psychological problems they could not solve. 37.50% of the graduate students said that others can go to psychological counseling, but they will not go, 28% of the graduate students said that they will not participate in psychological counseling, that psychological counseling can not solve their own problems. Therefore, in the face of psychological distress, 78.70% of graduate students choose to overcome psychological problems through their own efforts, and 64.28% choose to get help from relatives and friends. However, only 13.16 percent of postgraduates think that psychological counseling is very necessary, and they should go to the psychological counseling center of college students in time for psychological problems. It can be seen that psychological counseling is not the first choice for graduate students to relieve their worries. Most graduate students prefer to use self-adjustment method when they encounter psychological troubles. Good coping styles make problems more manageable and less stressful. The selection and application of coping styles can not only reveal a person's IQ, but also his eq. As a senior intellectual, postgraduates are also faced with great pressure. Whether they have good coping styles is crucial for postgraduates to solve psychological pressure.

In China, the number of graduate students has become larger and larger. It has been found in many colleges and universities that due to excessive psychological pressure, graduate students have more and more schizophrenia, suicide and other phenomena, and there is an increasing trend year by year, which cannot be ignored. While taking care of their own life and study, graduate students should develop a good anti-pressure mechanism and coping style, and face pressure with a good mentality and reasonable emotions. Then how to overcome psychological pressure? I think there are the following points:

Psychological experiments have proved that having good interpersonal relationship is very helpful to the individual's physical and mental health. It can not only make people feel happy, have a good state of mind, enhance the individual's sense of responsibility and self-confidence, but also meet people's need to belong. Good interpersonal relationship can make people feel happy. When faced with interpersonal relationship problems, graduate students should try to think from the other side's perspective instead of being self-centered. It is normal to encounter interpersonal conflicts, and it is inevitable to feel depressed. However, how to vent their bad emotions and effectively resolve the crisis varies greatly from person to person. It is very important to learn to face difficulties positively and face your negative emotions instead of taking an excuse and ignoring attitude. If you feel that you are under too much pressure, there is no one to talk to, and you can also seek help from the psychological counseling center for college students, where you will get more professional guidance. Of course, in the process of interpersonal communication, graduate students should first learn certain communication methods and skills, not too proud or indifferent, to be modest and polite, but also dare to express their will, but also learn to listen well. Secondly, in conflict with others, to think more from the other side's point of view, with tolerant tolerance of each other, try to solve the problem harmoniously.

Graduate students are under great psychological pressure and have negative emotions. Most of them are not strong enough to resist pressure, so they must have strong willpower. Strong will is a precious quality that no one is born with. It can only be acquired through constant practice. Strong willpower can help postgraduates resist external pressure and is one of the effective ways for individuals to resolve crises. So, how to cultivate a strong will, this will require a set a goal before doing everything, and put this goal in their plans in the first place, put the plan into action, and perseverance to achieve their goals, that can greatly improve the probability of success, and success will produce a sense of achievement, improve their self-confidence, let oneself in the later plan can have enough confidence to carry them out. Secondly, to develop a strong will, we need to cultivate our self-control, especially the ability to control our emotions reasonably. We can keep calm when facing serious setbacks and settle down to analyze and solve problems.

"Society is the broadest school, and practice is the best teacher." Graduate students often ignore the importance of social practice while emphasizing research achievements. Many graduate students think that they should do more experiments in the laboratory and be busy with scientific research happily. In fact, they do not exercise their anti-pressure ability as much as they should, nor do they appear so vulnerable when the pressure comes. Many graduate students also have such a misunderstanding, that the main body of social practice is college students, many schools also encourage college students to participate in practical activities, there is no requirement for graduate students. In fact, it is not. Studies have shown that social practice can make people feel happy, relieve individual psychological pressure while gaining social experience, and cultivate individual's thirst for knowledge through beneficial social practice. Therefore, for graduate students, it is beneficial to actively participate in social practice without any harm. They can not only get exercise in practice, gain friendship in practice, and share experience in practice, but also broaden their own boundaries, so that they can have a sense of achievement and self-confidence.

To sum up, while making efforts to do scientific research, graduate students also have to face various pressures, such as pressure from the objective environment and pressure caused by subjective factors. These tangible pressures can easily turn into intangible pressures, leading to negative emotions and psychological problems among graduate students. Of course, pressure from the external environment is inevitable, but it is difficult to change the objective factors, so graduate students are required to maintain a good attitude at all times. Actually pressure is just like a double-edged sword, on the one hand, can let a person feel the burden, the frustration and disappointment, on the other hand, to overcome the pressure and can bring the joy of success, when we actively face pressure, and translated into power to solve the problem, we are full of positive energy, can deeply realize the growth of the self, one's life is composed of large and small events, winding, ups and the plight of the connection of a journey, no matter success or failure, whether smooth or hard, is must go through a process, no one can replace, the process of the bitterness of bitter sweet is to go to taste, Instead of suffering from psychological pressure, it is better to improve their ability to resist pressure, optimistic in the face of difficulties and setbacks, will eventually find a different world.

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Essay代写：English feudalism and the separation of powers

下面为大家整理一篇优秀的essay代写范文- English feudalism and the separation of powers，供大家参考学习，这篇论文讨论了英国的封建制与权利分割。英国封建制的形成乃至发展，与土地权利分割的产生和存续有着紧密联系，是发展着的事物不同层面的呈现。英国早在盎格鲁-撒克逊时期，已初现基于土地权利分割的领主附庸关系之端倪；诺曼征服更将封臣制引入到了土地财产关系之中，并通过《末日审判调查》正式确立了分割式的封建土地财产观念；而在社会基层层面上，封建制庄园与原有村社共同体相互叠加，也引致了乡村土地权利的分割。在两者的交互作用下，英国形成了它后来独特的法律、政治和社会结构。

The formation and development of the feudal system in Britain are closely related to the emergence and survival of the division of land rights. As early as the Anglo - Saxon period, there was a beginning of the feudal vassal relationship based on the division of land rights. The Norman conquest also introduced the vassal system into the land property relations, and established the divided feudal land property concept through the "doomsday investigation". At the grassroots level, the feudal manor and the original village community overlap each other, which also leads to the division of rural land rights. After the development of property right, land transfer and inheritance system, the division of land rights became more complicated. In short, the immersion of feudalism gradually divided the land rights in Britain; the intensification of land rights division promoted the reform of feudal system in Britain. It was the interaction of the two that shaped Britain's unique legal, political and social structure.

With the academic circles continuously "rehabilitating" the "dark middle ages", people have more objective and fair views on the medieval history of Western Europe. The feudalism in Western Europe is no longer equated with centralization and autocracy. On the contrary, the typical feature of the feudal era in Western Europe is a consortium based on individual rights, which is a "contract-type" society. It came into being when the original blood relationship could no longer function effectively. In such a society, everyone had the right to choose their master, and it was on this basis that the contractual relationship between Lord and vassal based on individual rights and will was developed. For a long period of time, vassal status exists as a supplement to kinship status, and its rights and obligations are the same as the original kinship. At first, vassal status is mainly based on the sincere partnership in the family or on the battlefield. After leaving the family scope, vassal status is gradually replaced by other forms of personal attachment. The characteristics of the vassal relationship further influenced the development of some customs and even legal rules in the feudal society, and thus became one of the most core factors in the feudal era. That is to say, the contractual relationship between lords and their vassal was the basis for the existence and development of feudal society, and also the core of its relationships. Lord vassal relationship is a real contract, but also a two-way contract. In accordance with the provisions of the contract, the vassal shall perform the corresponding obligations for the protection he enjoys from the Lord's premises; Likewise a Lord must perform certain duties for the rights of his vassal, and if he tarries with the duties of providing protection, he shall likewise forfeit his rights.

"Contract" is a concept separated from "assignment", there is no realization of contract without assignment. Bentham and Austin declare: "a contract has two elements: first, the offeror expresses an 'intention' to perform the act he is about to perform or to keep his promise of inaction. Secondly, the offeree indicates that he 'expects' the offeror party to fulfil the commitments it has made." Of course, these alone do not constitute the so-called "contract", but also the existence of "debt". According to the interpretation of Maine, in each contract condition, the two parties must reach an understanding, and then through some specified procedures to perform, to start the "contract". In medieval Britain, the feudal system controlled its king and subjects effectively through explicit customs, so that neither of them could have too much power, thus forming the so-called "original contract" between the king and his subjects. In this society, a person or group acquired new companions mainly by way of contract, and each specific feudal vassal relationship was bound by explicit agreement. This is the originality of feudalism in Europe: "it emphasized the idea of a contract that could bind the rulers, so that feudalism in Europe, while oppressing the poor, did leave something for our western European civilization that we still aspire to have." Therefore, it is feasible and typical to study the feudal system with the relationship between Lord and vassal.

During the middle ages, Britain was in the period of agricultural civilization, and agriculture "was the foundation of almost everyone's life". It absorbed the majority of the people in the country -- living by agriculture and living in the countryside. And agricultural production depends on land, so the production and life of the whole society is based on land. More than that, land is still the most valuable thing for human beings. In feudal times, land played a particularly important role. It was the basis of all social relations at that time. Feudal system of immersion, the British the same plot of land rights between people of different identities to achieve the cutting, the different status of the land rights of condensation on the same piece of land, it can be said that the feudal era as a link to a whole chain of British society is based on land and social attachment relations between the synthesis, the discussion of the feudal lords vassal relationships, is to avoid the relations of the land rights of carding.

The division of land rights existed in England at that time, according to the available historical materials of the Anglo-Saxon era.

In the 8th century, the danes invaded Britain on a large scale. In order to effectively fight against the invasion of the Danish army, the rulers of England began to levy "Danish gold" throughout the country. Heavy taxes, combined with the threat of war, forced many bankrupt or near-bankrupt free peasants to settle with powerful lords in some places, who gave their most valuable land to the Lord in exchange for his security. These freemen, either in the name of individuals or in the name of their villages, entered into a "contract" with their consignees on agreed terms and, as the contract provided, continued to till their land. , of course, the nature of the land at this time, as well as the identity of the farmers has changed: lords and farmers are covered by signing the land with different rights, such as Lord can collect different degrees of land rent from the land, and the farmers are earnings continue to make land at the same time, according to the provisions of the contract the Lord fulfill corresponding obligations, and thus the land began to condense the people of different status of different rights; Moreover, compared with the landowners signed by the peasants, the peasants essentially lost different degrees of personal freedom and began to be attached to the landowners.

In fact, in the feudal age, this kind of relationship has already had some characteristics of feudal attachment. It was based on the transfer of individual rights among free men, and these small landowners did so entirely of their own free will. Is a relatively free and by the "contract" of the relationship between the specific provision, but can't deny that would seek to protect that part of the free for their own safety, essentially assign the right part, this part right after into relatively independent social relations level, into a "power", for those who take refuge in the grab, that the role of power, make the commitment of farmers to its strong dependent take refuge in the Lord, and made the original complete ownership of land in commitment first has carried on the division between it and its Lord. Thus, the dependence of feudal society and the division of land rights appeared.

If the Danish invasion to some extent started the wheels of British feudalism, then William's Norman conquest and some measures after it completely dragged Britain onto the track of feudalism. As mark Bloch said, "English vassal system and chivalry were introduced from abroad", which was the result of the Norman conquest. Norman invasion is the one of the most important turning point in history, it will be Britain's top in a batch of new host, since then the history of Britain and France have in common, start a new set of similar to the French feudal system, feudal system in England, of course, compared with the French in its own way, such as its military obligations and developed in the middle of the 12th century after the relevant legal system. But even this uniqueness was shaped in part by the Norman conquest. The Norman conquest had an effect on British society at that time from all aspects. As early as the Norman invasion, William gave the land he had conquered to the Norman soldiers in order to encourage and reward them. At the end of the Norman conquest, William had already confiscated all the land of Edward and the rebellious Anglo-Saxon aristocracy. Although the land of a few surrendered Anglo-Saxon aristocracy was reserved, it was also stipulated that they must make William their king, and in this way, all the land of England was included in the system of sedition and vassal.

If the Norman sequestration incorporated the British vassal system into the property right system, then the great judgment of the doom in 1086 truly "changed the concept of property right in Britain for the first time". The archives of the Norman trials themselves, and their arrangement of property classes and grades resulting from ordination, are the very origin of English rights in the land classes. Since that inquiry, the king has given the nobles full disposal of the land he had previously granted and given them the same right to subrogate it again in the form of smaller plots. However, it also stipulated that the king of England was the ultimate owner of all the land in England. Since then, Britain no longer had land without a Lord, but emphasized that "the land of each Lord was directly or indirectly owned by the king". That is to say, "theoretically, all the territories in the country were subordinate to the king through tenure relationship". Under the English feudalism, the king of England still had the exclusive ownership of all the fiefs that were feoffed, while the vassal and vassal vassal Shared the usufructuary right on the fief, and the vassal had the right to use the fief and obtain the products on the fief. But he has no right to dispose of the land, that is, to alter its shape, to divide it, to devalue it, or to transfer it. But over time, the vassal gradually acquired many rights other than reducing the value of the property. It was on this basis that the English king and his vassals at all levels were bound together by fiefs. The king of England enjoyed the ownership of the land, while the vassal obtained the usufruct of the land: the king of England could still enjoy some "privileges" from these fiefs, such as "collecting certain money of shield, assistance and inheritance" from the beneficiaries of these fiefs; However, the vassal should fulfill corresponding obligations to the king or his direct vassal for the vassal he obtained, such as paying fixed amount of money for shield and assistance. Through this land - conferment relationship, the British established its feudal society in the upper class of the unique feudal relationship. It is worth noting that the land is enclosed in layers, often three or four. After the conveyance of the land, the vassal's obligation to his vassal remains the same, but he may obtain from the vassal he has granted a share of his obligation. This situation will undoubtedly increase the complexity of land rights, resulting in the fief of the state of confusion, often difficult to determine the specific ownership of a piece of land. Therefore, the land purchase and sale act of 1290 decided to replace the land transfer form of "refeoffment" with "substitution", that is, when B wants to transfer the land acquired from A to C, C should take the place of B and fulfill the obligation of B, and B should exit the land retention chain. Therefore, the congealed relationship on the land is only a-c. This is the epitome of the division and change of land rights caused by the feudal system in medieval England. It was with the sword of this feudal system that the feudal system of Britain added the different status rights of the feudal lords and vassals of the upper class into the land property system at that time.

According to the different conditions of enfeoffment at that time, there were many different forms of land tenure in Britain. According to statistics, there were about 6 types of land tenure and 16 types of obligations in the 12th century. However, throughout the feudal era, there were mainly the following forms of tenure that stood out: knight tenure was a form of tenure that performed the obligation of knight to retain land, and required the landholder to provide the landholder with a specified number of heavily armed warhorses. By the middle of the 12th century the obligation was replaced by a fixed amount of money. By the end of the middle ages, with the devaluation of the currency, the collection of the shield money gradually stopped. Obligations relating to this type of tenure include attendance at the Lord's court, payment of assistantship, land restitution, fealty, inheritance, guardianship, marriage, etc. The tenure is mainly in the form of fulfilling the spiritual obligation to keep the land. When Henry granted a manor house to st. Peter's monastery, he was asked to perform some specific spiritual obligation for him -- to go to mass every Tuesday and Friday so that his soul could be saved. Of course, spiritual obligation also takes some other forms, such as providing relief for some poor people on certain festivals. When a king grants land to a person for certain obligations, such as carrying a letter, feeding a pet, making a bed, etc., the land is called a sokehold or servitude. Obligations in relation to the form of tenure are attendance at the suzerainty courts, payment of assistantship, confiscation of property, restitution of land, fealty, inheritance, but without guardianship, marriage, etc. Villand tenure is the most important form of land tenure in the manor, which is a non-free form of tenure. Obligations relating to it include fealty, attendance at court, land forfeiture, lease money, land restitution, inheritance money, fines, etc.

Thus it can be seen that, on the one hand, the enfeoffment and re-enfeoffment of land congealed different rights of different vassals on the same piece of land; on the other hand, different conditions set at the time of enfeoffment also made the land have different properties due to different obligations. Therefore, the feudal land grant in England caused a complicated situation of land rights in Britain at that time. In other words, there was a close relationship between the land rights division and the land sealing system in the feudal age of England.

After clarifying the vassal and land system with land banishment as the core, it is necessary for us to turn the research perspective to the village community and manor in the feudal grassroots society. It is the superposition of the village community and manor that forms the overall picture of the grassroots organization in the feudal society. As already mentioned, in Anglo-Saxon times, at the grassroots level of society in England, there were already Lord vassal relationships based on the transfer and division of land rights. However, in addition to this relationship, the main living unit of the peasants at that time was the original village community. Even when feudalization was sufficient, "the basic unit of agricultural organization was the village, not the manor." This is particularly typical of the continuation of the village community land system in the feudal era, as well as the position and role of the head of the estate in the grass-roots management.

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