Essay代写：Ways to Enhance the Fortunes of Lagging Cities and Regions

下面为大家整理一篇优秀的essay代写范文- Ways to Enhance the Fortunes of Lagging Cities and Regions，供大家参考学习，这篇论文讨论了区域经济发展不平衡。基于累积因果关系的理论、增长极理论、集群理论以及创新的理论，很容易发现，区域经济发展不平衡，不是因为自然资源，但也取决于经济发展不平衡的情况。然而，过大的经济差距往往会导致严重的社会问题，制约发达地区和欠发达地区的发展。因此，有必要通过提供适当的制度安排和技术进步来增加落后地区的财富。

Introduction

In the context of globalization, spatial concentration and spatial dispersal in economic activities as well as the unbalanced growth have become the important presentation and characteristics of current economic development all over the world. In 2006, Thomas L. Friedman argued that, “the world is flat”. His opinion reflects the process of spatial dispersal, economic specialization and regional economic integration in the waves of globalization. However, the process does not appear expected conditional convergence, and the polarization of regional economic development is particularly apparent, which manifest as economic agglomeration, diversification and regional unbalanced development.

The unbalanced development of regional economy is a complex social economic phenomenon, and it is also a universal problem during the process of economic development in various countries. Because of the differences in natural resources and the distribution of social resources, the regional differences of economic development are objective. However, the existence of great regional disparity tends to lead to social problems and negatively influence social harmony. In this way, it is necessary to figure out ways to enhance the fortunes of lagging cities and regions. In this paper, it firstly introduces the reasons of unbalanced regional growth, and then it demonstrates the necessity of achieving balanced regional development. What is more, with the help of theoretical basis and case studies, the paper provides useful suggestions for lagging cities and regions. Finally, it draws out some more general conclusions.

Reasons of Unbalanced Regional Growth

In Economic Theory and Underdeveloped Regions, Gunnar Myrdal (1957) puts forwards the theory of geographic dualism, and uses the concept of spread effect and backwash effect to demonstrate the advantages and disadvantages of priority development of developed areas to underdeveloped areas. According to Myrdal (1957), economic growth cannot be achieved in different spaces at the same time. Because of self advantages or being influenced by certain external factors, certain regions could develop preferentially. The rapid development of certain region will lead to the gap between the region and other regions in economic development, wage level and profit. The factors profit in developed regions is higher than lagging regions, and the factors for development tend to flow to developed regions on account of market mechanism. Myrdal calls the phenomenon as backwash effect. The circular and cumulative causation of backwash effect results to the further rapid development of developed regions and slower development of lagging regions. Regional economic gap is increasingly outstanding and forms dual economic structure.

In Economic Space: Theory and Applications and Concept of Growth Pole, Fransois Perroux argues that, “growth does not appear everywhere and all at once, it appears in points or development poles, with variable intensities, it spreads along diverse channels and with varying terminal effects to the whole of the economy” (Hassan, 2004). In other words, economic growth firstly appears in the growth poles in which capital and technology concentrate and scale economies effect forms. On the one hand, the growth poles tend to be able to master economic units through commodity supply and demand s well as the inter mobility of factors of product. On the other hand, the development of growth poles serves as role model for the economic development of surrounding regions, consequently, growth poles play important role in impacting economic development of surrounding regions. In addition, due to the attraction of growth poles, the talents, resources, capital and other economic factors are attracted to enter growth poles and form economies of scale.

Furthermore, according to Michael Porter’s cluster theory, in a specific area, a large number of enterprises and related supporting organizations with close relations in industry gather together in space and form powerful and continuous competitive advantage (Porter, 1998). The importance of industry clusters on regional economic development comes from its special competitive advantage. Industry clusters not only are professional, but also have the characteristic of geographical clustering, and they tend to represent the core competence of regions. In The Wealth of Nations, Adam Smith (1776) demonstrates the thought of division of labor and market scale. Smith-Young theorem underlines the interaction between division of labor and market.

In addition, based on Schumpeter’s theory of innovation, innovation is the essence of economic development (McCraw, 2007). Schumpeter applies theory of innovation to the process of economic development, and points out that the whole economic development is achieved through the circular flow of innovation, imitation and equilibrium of creative enterprises or regions. Generally, Schumpeter argues that, it is the unbalanced state led by innovation that promote the achievement of economic growth (McCraw, 2007). For the sake of economic growth, it is necessary to provide good investment and production environment to invention and innovation.

In general, all these theories explain the reasons of unbalanced regional growth, and stress that economic development depends on unbalance; but these theories ignore the positive effect of balanced development.

Necessity of Achieving Balanced Regional Development

Moderate regional economic gap could enhance the initiative and sense of urgency for the development of various regions. However, once the gap is too wide, the Matthew Effect will appear. Underdeveloped regions will lose the ability of self-development, and the talents, capital, resources and other factors of product will flow to developed regions. Local develop condition in underdeveloped countries remain undeveloped and their development potential is restricted, which seriously impact their whole economic development. At the same time, economic overexpansion in developed regions goes beyond the limit of resources and environment, and various natural social problems such as environmental pollution, unreasonable land use, and the decline of the quality of life. In addition, the situation that underdeveloped regions cannot achieve development will make developed regions lack of support in market and supply of resources and primary commodity. In this way, the further development of developed regions is restricted by the undeveloped regions. What is more, moderate regional economic gap promotes population mobility and information transfer, and promote the change of social structure among regions and the fusion and convergence of development. Nevertheless, too wide gap is easy to result to emotional estrangement and tendency of separation. What is worse, too wide gap poses a threat to social stability (OECD, 2012).

Ways to Achieve the Development of Lagging Cities and Regions

In the first place, it is necessary to provide effective institutions for the development of lagging cities and regions.

According to institutional theory, all the production activities of human society and the behaviors of all economic subjects could be analyzed in the institutional framework, and the behaviors of microeconomic units, development of factors and economic growth are restricted to institutional development. In the context of different institutions, there are different development patterns and growth efficiency of economy in a state. Fundamentally, economic growth depends on institutional development (Acemoglu et al., 2005). During the process of modern economic development, economic growth relies on institutional development, and an effective property right system which provides appropriate individual stimulation is the decisive factor of promoting economic growth. Economy develops in the process of changing and improving institutions, and capital investment and technical progress are only the ways to achieve economic growth, the result of economic growth or itself (North, 1990). The views of new institutional economics provide rich source of ideas for people to understand the institutional change and regional unbalanced economic development. No matter the marginal output of capital, nor the improvement of production efficiency brought by technical progress, are all related to the incentive mechanism provided by institutions. In this way, institutional difference is the precondition of unbalanced development of regional economy. In other words, it is necessary to adjust the institutions in order to enhance the fortunes of lagging cities and regions.

On the one hand, institutions and institutional arrangement provide incentive mechanism. Incentive mechanism not only reflects the relation between individual goal and social goal, but also reflects the relation between the levels that an individual work hard and reward. The difference of institutional arrangement will lead to different incentive mechanisms. Effective incentive mechanism could integrate individual goal and social goal, the level that an individual work hard and his reword, and achieve the increase of individual welfare and social welfare. On the contrary, bad incentive mechanism tends to result to the disconnection between individual goal and social goal, or the individual efforts and his reward. Effective organization depends on the establishment of institutional facilities and clear property ownership. The effective institutional arrangement could promote individuals to strive for social activities and combine individual goal and social goal. Through researching the global ocean shipping from 1600 to 1750, North (1968) finds that, the transportation capability grew slowly at the time, but the productivity of ocean shipping was improved greatly at the same time. The reason was that the innovation of property right system changed shipping and market system, consequently, it effectively contained the impropriation behaviors of privates, maintained the safety of sea transportation, reduced the cost, and finally improved the productivity. Through analyzing the reasons of ocean shipping in Middle Ages and the rise of international trade, North and Thomas (1973) find that, clear definition of the property right is a key institutional factor of judging whether or not efficiency exists and finally promotes the economic growth. Since clear definition of property right not only stimulates individuals to strive for effective economic organizations, but also make individuals feel helpful that individual rate of return could be close to social rate of return. In addition, it also defines people’s relations during the transaction, improve productive activities through decreasing the uncertainty and transaction costs in transaction, and finally achieve potential return and possible institutional arrangement.

On the other hand, institutions and institutional arrangement could decrease transaction expense. Institutions define the revenue opportunity, transitional information and maintain expectation. In this way, they reduce people’s uncertainty and opportunistic behaviors led by bounded rationality and incomplete information, and achieve the effect of reducing transaction expense and risks as well as optimizing the transaction behaviors. Ronald Harry Coase’s theory in the existence of enterprise system demonstrates that enterprise system plays an important role in reducing transaction expense (Williamson, 2014). Transaction expense is not applied in direct production process, but the coordination between people’s transaction behaviors. In this way, the amount of transaction cost could reflect the efficiency of regional economic activities in the context of unchanged technology. In general, because of the lack of imperfect legal system, prevalence of opportunism and high transaction risk in lagging cities and regions, people lack motivation to seek more effective output because of the increase of transaction expense. In the meantime, the institutions in advanced regions are relatively sound, and safe transaction tends to decrease the transaction expense virtually. Consequently, institutions could provide effective ways to save transaction expense.

In addition, institutions also positively impact the efficiency of other factors of product. Through defining and protecting property right, and the institutions make individual return be close to social return and better rewards due to harder work, labors could be promoted to release their potential. What is more, financial system decides the investment level of a region through influencing the availability of capital. The smooth flow of loan capital from the creditor to lender is achieved on the basis of effective institution. In the capital market and funds capital of lagging regions, it is difficult for investors to obtain capitals used for investment. In extreme situations, due to the lack or restriction of institutions, the allocative efficiency of capital is very low. In Nurturing Novelty, Kevin Morgan (2017) demonstrates the role of regional innovation policy in promoting regional development. Through the case studies of the Basque Country and Wales, it shows that how regional governance and innovation polices play important role in local economic development.

In the second place, as technological progress is one of the most important motivation of economic long-term development, it is essential for lagging regions to use independent innovation or technology diffusion to catch up with developed regions. Since Adam Smith discussed division and technology, a large number of economists have diligently strived after the relationship between technological change and economic growth. It is until the middle of the 20th century. Solow (1956) firstly treated technological progress as a model in promoting economic growth for a long time. In the late of 1980s, the endogenous growth theory especially for Schumpete’s endogenous growth theory truly regard technological progress as an internal factor promoting the economic growth. Various scholars research the relationship between technological progress and economic growth through the forms of technological progress, process of changing and direction of change. They generally accept that the differences of economic levels in different countries are mainly led by the differences in technological progress. A large number of scholars use theoretical model to prove that, underdeveloped countries could achieve rapid economic growth through technology import and technological progress. The research of Nelson et al. (1966) proves that, once the improvement of technological level in latecomers is proportional to the technological gap between latecomers and regions in forward position, the speed of technological progress in latecomers tend be faster than early-movers. Barro and Sara-I-Martin (1992) use the neoclassical growth model as a framework and exploit data on personal income since 1840 and on gross state product since 1963 to study convergence across the 48 contiguous U.S. sates. Based on their research result, they find that the initially poorer economy with a lower starting value tends to grow faster in per capita terms if two economies have the same parameters of technology and preferences. In other words, with the help of technology catch-up, various countries tend to achieve the convergence in earnings for a long time (Barro & Sala-I-Martin, 1995). In the context of open economy, Elkan (1996) establishes general equilibrium model of technology transfer, intimation and innovation. He supposes that all national capital stock could be improved effectively through technology transfer, intimation and innovation. His research proves that, underdeveloped regions could finally achieve technology catch-up and economic catch-up through technology import. The human capital accumulation, productivity, and rate of economic growth of countries at different starting values tend to be convergence. Once the technological progress in underdeveloped countries could be described through the concept of technology import, it could provide the advantage of backwardness called by Gerschenkron (1962). Nevertheless, the technological progress in underdeveloped countries is more complex than simple technology import or transferring the chief source or machines in developed countries, which is closely related to the silence and environmental sensitivity of technology (Evenson & Westphal, 2003). Most technologies include invisible technology and matched silent part are very sensitive to environment. It is necessary for enterprises to master certain absorptive capability, comprehensive ability to fully absorb and apply the technology and explore its values (Cohen & Levinthal, 1989). Even though certain capacities could be achieved automatedly as time goes on, in most cases, the accumulation of these capacities require positive technological efforts, including a well scheduled planned time, necessary human beings and the investment of material resources. On the basis of data of enterprises in Pakistan, Romijin (1997) explores the influence of the ability of technology absorption and learning. The research shows that, the technological effort of enterprises plays a significant part in constructing the technological capability. Through researching the economic development in Korea and technological learning of enterprises, the researcher concludes that education plays an important role in successful technology import (Fakir, 2008). What is more, Kim and Inkspen (2005) research the relationship among cooperating with foreigner research and development, absorption capacity and technology learning, and they find that, enterprise has a faster speed in technology learning if it introduces new technology faster, has more experience in cooperation and learns quickly. Generally, the cooperation with the research and development departments of foreigner enterprises has outstanding influence on technology learning, and the effect of technology learning can be promoted by the absorption capacity. Falvey, Foster and Greenaway (2006) use panel data to test the technology transfer between Southern and Northern countries, and they find that, technology transfer can be promoted effectively by absorption capability, and absorption capability is a key factor decides whether or not developing countries achieve the advantage of backwardness.

Conclusion

In conclusion, based on the theory of cumulative causation theory, theory of growth poles, cluster theory as well as the theory of innovation, it is easy to find that regional unbalanced economic development is not because of natural resources, but also due to the situation that economic development depends on unbalance. However, too wide economic gap tends to result to serious social problems and restrict the development both in developed regions and underdeveloped regions. In this way, it is necessary to enhance the fortune of lagging regions through providing appropriate institutional arrangement and technological progress. since institutions not only provide incentive mechanism, reduce transaction expense, but also positively impact the efficiency of other factors of product; meanwhile, technological progress is also proved to greatly promote regional economic growth.

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Assignment代写：The semiotic significance of tattooing

下面为大家整理一篇优秀的assignment代写范文- The semiotic significance of tattooing，供大家参考学习，这篇论文讨论了纹身的符号学意义。纹身作为一门历史悠久的艺术，它的产生有着不同的文化背景，不同的伦理道德对纹身也有着不同的理解。相同的纹身可以表现出不同的意义。虽然在不同的文化条件下，它们之间的关系是不稳定的。随着社会的发展和时间的推移，在一定的文化背景下，其关系会建立并保持稳定。了解某种纹身的意义，关键在于了解纹身的文化历史和伦理特征。

1. Introduction

Tattooing can draw a picture on people’ skin and make it everlasting existing. It may be people’s the most beautiful memory and it is not the exclusive right for the criminal offender. No matter what pattern on the body, tattooing is to please itself or others. People usually consider that tattooing is beautiful, mysterious, sexy and attractive and it is also the presentation of unique characteristic and personal belief. This painful beauty can be traced back to 2000 years ago. Many ethics in the world have develop their unique tattooing art and endow it with various significance. Tattooing as a behavior and its different pattern can be understood discrepantly in different cultural background.

To understand the significance of tattooing, this paper will stand on the view of semiotics. With the theory and knowledge of semiotics, it will find out the development process and internal significance for the tattooing in different conditions. The semiotics can be adopted into this topic because semiotics is the subject about meaning of human being’s behaviors. The scholars consider that the meaning can be expressed only by symbol and the application of symbol is to express meaning. On the contrary, there is no meaning that cannot be presented by symbol and there is no symbol that has no meaning.

To dig out the significance of tattooing, this paper will be divided into three parts. Firstly, it will put forward general situation and history of semiotics. In this way, the key concepts and general theory will be highlighted and used to analyze the following parts. Secondly, it will discuss the significance of tattooing with the semiotics theory. In this part, it will also review the history of tattooing. At last, a solid conclusion will be carried out.

2. Semiotics

Symbol, is used by subject to connect the object to a certain thing and thus make the object can be on behalf of a certain thing. This process can be achieved by channel of auditory or visual tool. When this connection is identified by a group of people and becomes common convention, this object can become a symbol to express this object. The famous semiologist Eco (1976) also considers that symbol can be defined as a certain thing which can be representative of other thing according to the social conventions. Even though this thing is nonexistent. For an example, dragon is obviously nonexistent. But people in western country still consider that it is a vicious biology or it is something vicious. This nonexistent biology can have implication in different society. In China, dragon is a symbol of dignity and authority (Swiderski, 1990).

As for semiotics, it is a subject to research symbol. It digs into the essence of symbols, the law of development of symbols and different meaning of symbols as well as the relationship among various symbols and relationship between symbols and human being’s behaviors. Symbol is important for human being. Langer (1953) has pointed out that the most advanced and amazing symbol design human being has ever invented is the language. Among all the symbol that can be on behalf of a certain meaning, the simplest one is the name. It contains four fundamental factors of semiotics including object, symbol, concept and body itself. In other words, when the symbol of name appears, it firstly represent a concept of this kind of thing instead of pointing out the body itself. After that, it will turn to the specific thing. The process of turning to the specific thing from the concept, it is extension.

The other symbol is the representative symbol. It can develop to be a complex semiotic system from several simple symbols. This symbol is consisted of line, color, massing or other complex ways to form the visual effect. The representative symbol is born with the conscious activity of human being reaching a certain level. The reason for it is the development of social labor and language. In this moment, the thought of human being is formed from the representation to record of representation to concept established into the brain. After that, this experiential concept will be fixed and produce various image in the brain. There is a relationship of representing and represented in the representative symbol and characteristics of objects. The visual symbol is regarded as a symbol of a certain thing and the representative symbol is the representation of characteristics of objects, which is the unique visual feature of objects (Langer, 1953).

Besides, the fundamental concepts of semiotics, semiologists also research the significance of semiotics in the social life. They adopt the concept and system of semiotics to scope the human culture and human being itself. The analysis includes fairy story, religion, language and history. By explaining the relative social cultural phenomenon, they point out the deep reason of these social cultural phenomenon (Chandler, 2002). Although the general orientation of researching semiotic significance is similar, there are various schools and they pay attention to different fields.

Saussure (2011) is the famous Swiss linguistician and semiologist. His idea of modern language is one of sources of modern semiotics. Thus he is regarded as the initiator of semiotics especially the European semiotics. He considers that language is one kind of special semiotic system like character, representative ceremony, signals. The language is important in the semiotic system. The reason is that totally random symbol can achieve semiotic code in a more possible way rather than other symbols. Thus, linguistics is the model for semiotics even though language is a special semiotic system. Since the features of semiotics is expressed thoroughly, the research result can be referred to other research of semiotic system. So, the theory from the semiotic system of language can be also adopted into other field. Saussure’s theory pays attention to the field of social function. To discuss it, he put forward the concept of signifier and signified. The former one is the external image of symbol. The later one is the significance of symbol. It is believed that there is conventional relationship between them. For an example, in system of language symbol, voice is the signifier and semanteme is the signified. The relationship between them is conventional.

In Peirce’s theory, the essence of symbol is a ternary relationship, which is consisted of symbol shape, symbol object and symbol explanation. The main idea of Peirce’s theory, the interpreter in his mind can use the symbol to refer to object or other things (Peirce, 1902). People is the user of symbol and they use symbol to express their idea and thinking. Thus, language as a symbol can be a tool for human being to identify objects and share significance. To be more specific, he put forward a system of classification for the symbol. In regard to the organization form of symbols, it can be divided into three kinds. Firstly, natural symbol. This kind of symbol is consisted of single element. Secondly, factual symbol. This semiotic system is formed with various elements. Thirdly, ordinary symbol. It is organized according to a certain law. Besides, the classification can also be put forward according to the relationship of signifier and signified. Firstly, pictorial symbol. The symbol signifier and signified have similar features of appearance. For examples, the photos and people, the map and city. Secondly, designated symbol. In this system, there is causal association between symbol signifier and signified like the arrow and direction, weather cock and wind direction. Thirdly, symbolic sign. There is conventional relationship between symbol signifier and signified, like crucifx and Christian. In addition, the classification can also be carried out according to the degree of explanation for symbol. Firstly, intuitive symbol. Since it is lack of information and materials of this symbol, people can just explain it by subjective judgment. Thus, there is no objective conclusion in it. Secondly, empirical symbol. People can explain this symbol in an objective way with support of materials. Thirdly, analytical symbol. It refers to culture, society, history and tradition. So, people can explain them in a thorough way.

By scoping the literature of semiotics, we can know that the semiotics can be adopted to identify the social phenomenon and human culture. The concepts from semiotics can also be implemented into the analysis of tattooing. In terms of semiotics, it can dig out the significance of the tattooing in a systematical way.

3. Tattooing – body art

Tattooing is one kind of symbol for human being and it has long history. Its significance is abundant but implicit. From the view of semiotics, it can dig out its meaning for human being.

The people living in the primitive tribe usually tattoo. They may pursue the strength or protection in this way. They believed that by tattooing a certain pattern on the body like lion or other fierce animals they can get different power from the rest. Thus, they can get the sense of protection.

In this case, the primitive man should hunt to support their family. However, without modern weapon, they are weak in front of the fierce animals. It means they may be die when hunting and lose the chance to breed, which brings fear for them. To overcome this feeling, they need something to comfort them and tattooing can meet this demand. Through tattooing an animal which can be nonexistent, they consider that they can get power like the animal tattooed in their body. Obviously, the tattooing pattern is the signifier, which can be seen and the significance of power is the signified. Although this relationship is stochastic, it seems to be conventional in that period (Honma, 2015).

(Fig1: It is believed that tattooing the tribal totem on the body can bring power.)

The relationship among the signifier and signified can be various. In other words, the same behaviors can be interpreted in different way.

In case of primitive man, their tattooing can have other functions. One of them is ethnic identity. By tattooing a certain totem, which is belong to a certain ethnics, they can confirm their affiliation. It is significant for them because different camp of tribes can attack each other. In this way, affiliation is important and it means the personal safety and the property safety (Honma, 2015).

In addition, the meanings behind this tattooing can various. It can also be the sign of beauty or evidence of being an adult. The earliest tattooing is found on Egyptians. On some of female mummy, it can find some tattooing which can be traced back to 2000 BC. In Egypt, tattooing may be the exclusive rights for females. For an example, in area of Deiel-Bahari, there is a female mummy called Amunet. It is believed that she used to be superior Gloria Foster and she may be an imperial concubine. Thus, the tattooing here can also be the function of distinguishing the social status. Besides, the reason of tattooing becoming the exclusive right for female is that people there consider tattooing can be effective in cure. It can be the talisman for pregnant woman (Tassie, 2003). As we all know, in the ancient time, the death rate for pregnant woman is extremely high. By tattooing, people hope it can protect their wife and children.

As the tattooing mentioned above, the shape of tattooing may be different, but the signified behind the object is similar. It is considered that the tattooing represents a certain mystical power to protect themselves.

In japan, its tattooing culture is also profound and it is one of the most popular tattooing in the world.

The Japanese traditional tattooing can distinguish itself from other school of tattooing by providing a whole topic. This is to say, the Japanese tattooing is more like a picture instead of a certain pattern. It is usually presented on people’s back and it can extend to arms and legs and even chest. This kind of tattooing is famous for its feature of colorful and large-covered. The feature of completeness means tattooist have to spend lots of time, resources and emotion to achieve this work. The pattern is usually related to a certain virtue like dedication, loyalty, courage and so on.

(Fig2: The Japanese tattooing likes a drawing)

Because in the ancient time, the war is frequent and one of the important factors to win the war is army. However, the enemies also have their army. The competition between the warlords decides the victory or defeat for the war. Thus, to guarantee the victory, the general asks its army to have the virtue of dedication, loyalty and courage so that they can develop ability to defeat the enemy. But these virtue is intangible and it is difficult to confirm all the soldiers by one-to-one communication. To overcome this matter, they come up with tattooing. It is believed that tattooing the pattern on body can show the virtue. They think it can work. The reasons for it can be divided into two parts. One, these pattern is presented in the fairy tale. Thus, it is believed that it can bring mystery stories. The other one is that the tattooing in ancient time can bring great pain for people. It is believed that the one who can bear such great pain is reliable (Hladik, 2012).

The relationship between the tattooing and virtues is not established in a one day. On the contrary, it experiences a long time. The process may be complex and reasonable. As we can see, the significance of tattooing for Japanese in the beginning is similar with the primitive tribe. The tattooing represents a certain of mystical power, which is ambiguous. People just believes that the tattooing can bring power for them. But the effect of the tattooing is uncertain. With the time goes, the specific significance of tattooing is established step by step. Although there are more than one kind of explanation for a certain tattooing, its significance is explicit relatively. In other words, the relationship between the pattern of tattooing or behaviors (signifier) and its represented virtue (signified) is established and become stable with the society development.

The different cultural condition can affect the significance of tattooing. Besides Japanese tattooing, the European tattooing is also famous in the world. Although the sources of European tattooing may be from Japan, its significance and features are various.

The first one who brings the tattooing to Europe is a seafarer and thus he is called prince of tattooing. There are 338 of different pattern of tattooing on his bodies. Because British sailors usually take tattooing as a souvenir to Britain, the tattooing becomes the tradition of navy gradually. Its popularity is the most among all the European countries. Lots of royal family tattoos on their bodies. In 1862, Prince of Wales visited holy place of Christianity, Jerusalem and he tattooed the pattern of crucifix on his body. After that King Edward VII also tattooed the crucifix on his bodies. Besides, when his two sons of Clarence and York passed away, Edward asked the famous tattooist of Qiandai Diao to tattoo the dragon design on their bodies. Not only Britain is crazy about tattooing, Austro-Hungary also be graces about it. The famous princess of Sissi tattooed a pattern of sea anchor on her arm (Gilman, 2001).

Since the enthusiasm about tattooing is flourishing in royal family, the upper class begins to pursue of tattooing and considers it is the symbol of identification. The nobilities turn to Japanese tattooists to design their tattoo. Thus, Japanese tattooing can have great influence on European tattooing. However, the popular patterns in Europe at that time are small-sized flora and fauna instead of the whole picture like Japanese tattooing.

(Fig3: The pattern of European tattooing is usually the planet)

As we can see, the behavior of tattooing has its own significance for different culture. In Japan, it can be regarded as the presentation of virtue. While, in Europe, it can show one’s social identification. Different culture make people have different understanding of this behavior. However, in a same cultural circle, people usually have the same understanding about this behavior. Thus, it is signifying. Besides, the different patterns can be regarded as different significance and this significance is also accepted by a group of people.

4. Conclusion

From review the general theory of semiotics and history of tattooing. It has discovered following results.

As an art with long history, the tattooing is established in different cultural background and different ethics have various understanding on it. In ancient Japan, it is usually adopted to present someone’s virtue because the people there consider that by tattooing the pattern of fairy tale on body and bearing great pain during the process, a person can show his virtue and he is a reliable person. To be specific, different patterns can also be various meaning. In regard to Europe, although it is believed that its source of tattooing art is from Japan, it shows differently. At the beginning, the royal family in Europe adopts the tattooing to express their sincere faith and this enthusiasm is conveyed to the upper class. But the upper class just use the tattooing to show their fashionable taste. Besides, the patterns for European people are different compared with Japan. Thus, the Japanese tattooing can just influence the shape of art of tattooing on Europe. When this kind of art comes into Europe, the local people endow it with new significance.

As we can see, the same signifier (tattooing) can show different signified (significance). Although in different cultural condition, the relationship between them is unstable. With the social development and time goes by, the certain relationship in a certain cultural background will be established and stay stable. The key way to understand the significance of a certain tattooing is to understand the cultural history and ethic characteristics.

Reference

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Eco, U. (1976). A Theory of Semiotics. Indiana University Press, 35 (4).

Gilman, SL. Written on the Body: The Tattoo in European and American History by Jane Caplan. American Historical Review, 106 (4) :: 628.

Honma, T. Reinventing the Tribal Primitive Aestheticization and Filipino Tattooing in Southern California. Amerasia Journal, 41 (3) :41-64.

Langer, SK. An Introduction to Symbolic Logic. Dover Publications, 7 (4) :497.

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Swiderski, RM. (1990). The dragon and the straightedge, part 1: A semiotics of the Chinese response to European pictorial space. Semiotica, 81 (1-2) :1-42.

Saussure, FD. (2011). Course in General Linguistics - Translated by Wade Baskin. Edited by Perry Meisel and Haun Saussy. Philosophy East & West.

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Essay写作如何进行Paraphrase改写

想必同学们在写作Essay的时候，都会进行Paraphrase改写。而Paraphrase改写，就是用自己的语言将别人的内容表达出来，这样既可以降低Essay的重复率，还可以让读者更容易理解文章的内容。那么Essay写作如何进行Paraphrase改写呢？下面就给大家讲解一下。

如果你想要将一段比较长的文本运用到你的论文当中,那么Paraphrase就特别实用。学术论文写作中,我们非常不推荐大段大段的直接引用。因为教授希望看到的是你个人的想法,而不是复制他人的原话。Paraphrase将文本浓缩成对你的论文来说更有用的内容。此外,当你只想引用某个段落里面的部分句子时,paraphrase也是很好的方法。

现在我们来用例子看一下用Paraphrase应该如何表达：

Tolkien once commented that elves were used prolifically in Beowulf, but they were always mentioned in conjunction with monsters. The writer notes that tolkien didn't like this use of elves, as evidenced by his omission of the word"elf when translating Beowulf(Helen)

和直接引用相比,paraphrase不需要使用引号，这对我们留学生来说，是减轻Essay写作中复杂的方法之一。第二,paraphrase和直接引用一样,需要给出引用信息。同时,paraphrase不只是简单的近义词替换,而是对信息进行了重新的组合和整理。

以下两种情况,需要Paraphrase

1)引用的文本超过三行

在这里三行只是一个大概的规则,但是你可以作为一个参考。我们再次强调,教授希望在你的论文中看到的是你自己的想法,如果他们想直接阅读你使用的文献,他们只需要直接跳到文章的works cited page,直接看原文就可以

2)在同一段里面已经有了两处直接引用

太多的直接引用会让你的论文读起来非常不通顺。而且每次引用的时候,都需要对引用的句子做出介绍和解释,所以如果你在同一个段落里面包含太多的引用,段落会显得非常冗长。而Paraphrase会将引用的证据和你个人的想法和解释结合在一起,这样一来,文章读起来会更加通顺连贯。

以上就是关于Essay写作如何进行Paraphrase改写的讲解，希望同学们看过之后，都能熟悉运用Paraphrase改写去完善Essay.

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Paper代写：English people-oriented curriculum policy orientation

本篇paper代写- English people-oriented curriculum policy orientation讨论了英国人本位课程政策取向。英国基础教育从教会控制教育到教师自治，从综合化教育政策到实施全国统一课程，经历了漫长的发展历程才形成了今天的这种体制结构。英国在人本主义的思想基础上确立了人本位课程政策取向。人本位课程政策取向有其本身不可避免的缺点，因此，英国基础教育课程改革使得过去的课程决策权力与职责过分集中于学校层次的状况实现了课程决策的根本性转变。人本位课程政策取向的思想基础是人本主义，它追求的主要不是社会的功利目的，而是为了受教育者个体的发展。本篇paper代写由51due代写平台整理，供大家参考阅读。

From church control education to teacher autonomy, from comprehensive education policy to national unified curriculum, British basic education has gone through a long development process to form today's institutional structure. On the basis of humanism, the policy orientation of humanistic curriculum has been established in Britain. People-oriented curriculum policy orientation has its own inevitable shortcomings. Therefore, the curriculum reform of basic education in the UK has realized a fundamental change in curriculum decision-making in the past when the power and responsibility of curriculum decision-making were excessively concentrated in the school level.

Britain has formed a curriculum mechanism of independent school choice and indirect management through external examination. In 1981, the department of education and science and the department of wales presented a document entitled "school curricula" in which the "purposes of education" and a number of recommendations for the curriculum were made. "Each student's curriculum should be developed by the school. "Neither the government nor the local education authorities should specify the details of what is taught in schools." "ministers of state recommend it to the local education authorities and schools for their reference in reviewing their curriculum policies and the implementation and application of these policies in their respective schools. "Schools themselves have a role to play in the development of curriculum policies by the educational authorities, but they must also apply these policies to their own work in a way that best suits the special needs and circumstances of their students." Britain has always maintained the liberal mechanism of the curriculum based on its consistent liberal beliefs.

Humanistic curriculum policy orientation is based on humanism. It is often based on the school and the actual students, the pursuit of characteristics and personality. It comments on the curriculum policy from the perspective of achieving the individual characteristics and perfection of the school and individuals. Its goal is to create the curriculum characteristics of the school and cultivate students with the courses with distinctive characteristics. What it pursues is not the utilitarian purpose of the society, but the development of the educated individuals, who are cultivated into the so-called free, perfect and harmonious individuals.

"Humanism" believes that all activities related to the curriculum should be directly located in the natural law of individual development and individual differences, and from the free development of people to promote the freedom and autonomy of schools.

On the basis of humanism, the policy orientation of humanistic curriculum has been established in Britain. The basic viewpoints of this orientation are mainly embodied in three aspects: curriculum policy making mode, curriculum decision-making mode and curriculum development mechanism.

People-oriented curriculum policy making model is an inverted triangle. This is a decentralized bottom-up model, according to which decision-making power of courses is concentrated at the grassroots level, and decisions are mainly made by different schools and reported to local authorities and even the central government. This mode is represented by the following figure:

The drawback of this model is that it can not guarantee the unified national basic curriculum standards, and the quality of curriculum design varies greatly from place to place and even from school to school.

The decision-making mode of people-oriented curriculum policy is democratization curriculum decision-making mode. Curriculum decision-making is mainly carried out at the school level, that is, the responsibility and power of curriculum decision-making is mainly undertaken by the school implementing the curriculum. This mode is manifested in following the requirements of the central education administrative department, that is, the educational goals set by the national education administrative department, and combining the individual differences of regions and schools to find distinctive places. At the same time, it can make full use of various resources of the community, such as the extensive participation of experts, scholars, teachers and parents. After a decision has been made, it is first necessary to make demonstrative trials and modifications, pass adequate experimental studies, and then generally implement them. This model is exemplified by the UK. The British government does not interfere in the school curriculum, and the curriculum is basically decided by the school itself. The influence of the state on curriculum decisions is one of the smallest in the developed world. At the same time, the principal of the school is just like the master of the ship, and teachers are demanding more and more professional autonomy. Under the advocacy of scholars such as l.house and m.kilbeck, theories such as "teacher-centered curriculum development" and "the most appropriate place for curriculum design is the place where educators and learners teach" have become the mainstream of curriculum development in Britain. Therefore, British schools have more power in curriculum decision-making than most developed countries, thus forming a structural model with the largest school decision-making power, followed by local decision-making power and the smallest national decision-making power.

People-oriented curriculum development mechanism is the school independent mechanism, also known as school-based curriculum development mechanism, which takes school teachers as the main body to develop the school curriculum independently. Curriculum development is usually by the school staff including the principal, teachers, students and their parents on behalf of the school community to decision-making, with practice, evaluation, development mode of curriculum development, the implementation of "problem solving" namely "bottom-up" strategy, in order to meet the objective existence of the differences between communities, schools, students, thus has certain adaptability and participatory, usually in the form of "optional courses" in school.

England and wales form the largest education system in the UK, with a tradition of school autonomy and high morale among teachers seeking professional status similar to that of doctors. For a long time, central institutions of education were rarely involved in curriculum matters, since the power of curriculum design was legally vested in local education authorities and individual school groups.

Under normal circumstances, the curriculum program is like this: the central education administrative agencies do not intervene in the management of the school, even if the single from the viewpoint of England, it has no intention to establish a unified curriculum, the local education administration is responsible for the establishment and management of school, also not to interfere in the choice of the school curriculum, and in the council of the university, the school authorities and teachers as the main body of lesson plans. The government often sets up semi-official intermediary organizations to carry out curriculum investigation and curriculum reform experiments. For example, the school board was established in 1964 to coordinate and conduct curriculum research. Such research is often commissioned by university research institutions, and its findings, either for consultation or through teacher centres, are not compulsory for schools to try out. The school board was abolished in 1982, and the school curriculum development committee was established in 1984. Mainly through external examinations, the school curriculum for indirect control. Agencies that prepare external tests, such as the secondary examination board, established in 1983, are also intermediaries.

People-oriented curriculum policy has its advantages: people-oriented curriculum makes each school become the subject of the curriculum plan, which is helpful for the school to independently carry out activities and curriculum experiments. Contribute to the better realization of educational goals and characteristics; It is helpful for the implementation and improvement of school curriculum. Contribute to the democratization of curriculum decisions; It is helpful to the development of students' personality and teachers' professional development. It also helps to motivate communities and schools. Under this orientation, an atmosphere of encouraging and supporting teachers is formed in the school. Communication on campus becomes easier; Teachers' professional motivation, work interest, career satisfaction and professional ability have been improved. Formed the new working mode of teacher team work; Students feel that school learning is closer to their needs; the curriculum is more flexible and it is easier to integrate new content related to real life. It requires the extensive participation of all parties and the full use of existing resources. In the decision-making process, the bearers of different functions show a kind of interconnection and mutual influence. The orientation is also cannot be ignored, however, the disadvantages: first of all, some of the practices in this orientation, tend to make originally not balance the difference between school and school is more outstanding, also exacerbate between schools and the imbalance of education quality, behind the school's education quality may deteriorate further, makes the gap between the school. Secondly, as schools need to provide additional manpower, material resources and financial resources, etc., they rely too much on the participation of manpower, material resources and communities. Therefore, the educational resources consumed are obviously higher than the needs of national curriculum under the national orientation. Finally, the ability of teachers to participate in curriculum development and curriculum decision-making cannot meet the needs of school-based curriculum development, and the quality of school-based curriculum is prone to controversy.

It can be seen from the track of the curriculum reform of primary and secondary schools in Britain since the 1980s that the power and responsibility of curriculum decision-making in the past were excessively concentrated at the school level, while Britain realized the fundamental transformation of curriculum decision-making through the education reform act 1988 and a series of other documents.

The UK is a country with a tradition of "autonomy". The autonomy of teachers is largely reflected in curriculum, teaching materials and teaching methods. This is an important reason why there is no national curriculum or syllabus in Britain for a long time. After the 1960s, teachers' control of the curriculum was increasingly challenged. There are concerns that teachers have too much power. Many believe that this tradition must be reformed because education has become a public, state power and cause, the freedom of teachers must be accompanied by great social responsibility, and the public and the state have the power to understand and supervise teachers' decisions, to propose curriculum Outlines and to supervise their implementation. The education debate that began in 1976 represented a trend toward limiting teacher autonomy and was the beginning of the national curriculum that led to the education reform act of 1988.

At the heart of the educational reforms that began in the late 1970s was the unification of the national curriculum. This is an expression of the centralization of education in Britain. The central government's increasing control over education was a growing feature of postwar British education. The education reform act of 1988 is considered to be the most important postwar education law in Britain after the education act of 1944. The act, in the form of a statutory provision, provides for a uniform national curriculum for all public primary and secondary schools throughout the country from 1989. This is an epoch-making reform in the history of British curriculum development. The implementation of the new national curriculum abolished the traditional freedom of British teachers as the main force to influence the curriculum, and ended the history of teachers' free combination of curriculum categories, determination of subject focus and design of curriculum content. The status of teachers, especially their expertise and managerial role, was largely overturned by the education reform act.

The curriculum reform in 1988 represented a major shift in the emphasis of curriculum policy in post-war Britain, fundamentally changing the traditional relationship between central, local and school in curriculum, and abolishing teachers' autonomy in curriculum. The education reform law of 1988 is an inevitable result of the development of modern education system in Britain. It is the result of the continuous reform and development of postwar education in Britain, especially the final legislative achievement of strengthening the government's control over schools since the 1970s, which makes the school education system develop from liberal practice to a more centralized direction.

With the gradual implementation of the national curriculum, the contradiction between the unity and the independent curriculum tradition of British primary and secondary schools is increasingly prominent. The complex achievement targets and new evaluation system of the national curriculum take up too much time, leaving schools no time to organize the national curriculum and offer more non-national curriculum with distinctive features, and teachers no time to give full play to their creativity. The heavy burden and poor test scores of students have aroused teachers' antipathy to the national curriculum. After 90 time, the contradiction that countrywide and unified exam cause is fiercer and fiercer. Teachers say the government's unified national examination and evaluation system is a kind of bureaucracy to teacher autonomy intolerable interference, the test itself exists many defects, lead to distortion happened to the relationship between teaching and evaluation, obviously appeared the phenomenon of "teaching" for the exams, make the development of students and even the whole basic education has been a lot of harm.

In view of the existence of these contradictions, and in order to calm the growing discontent of teachers' groups and parents of students, the government decided to adjust the national curriculum and try to resolve the contradictions. In the following aspects of reform: emphasis on basic knowledge education; (ii) reduction of national curriculum content and increase of diversity and flexibility of choice; Simplify the scope and methodology of evaluation; Establish a unified curriculum management and coordination mechanism; Setting up value-added indicators to scientifically evaluate school performance; Improve critical segment evaluation.

How to reform basic education system, improve the quality of primary and secondary schools, so as to enhance the comprehensive national strength, to meet the challenge of the new century, has always been one of the important problems of the Blair government extremely, therefore, without hesitation, the Blair government pulled open the curtain of the new round curriculum reform, the provisions of British primary and secondary school starts in September 2000 the implementation of the new national curriculum. The curriculum reform puts forward new views on national curriculum in the 21st century. National curriculum is the core educational strategy of the government to improve the quality of education. The formulation of national curriculum has gone through difficult choices and balance, and it needs firm confidence to define and maintain the core knowledge and cultural experience as each student's rights. Teachers should be given enough flexibility to organize their teaching in a way to strengthen the transmission of students' knowledge and experience. To give all students a clear, comprehensive and statutory right to study. The reforms also set out the four main objectives of the national curriculum: empowerment, setting standards, promoting continuity and consistency, and promoting public understanding.

At present, the unified curriculum is being implemented in the UK, but the controversy in the public opinion and education circles is also continuing. The implementation degree of the national curriculum policy in the UK will be what, and whether the unified curriculum will be further strengthened or weakened in the future remains to be proved by time.

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Essay代写：Retirement communities in the United States

下面为大家整理一篇优秀的essay代写范文- Retirement communities in the United States，供大家参考学习，这篇论文讨论了美国的养老社区。美国养老社区可以追溯到殖民地时期的社会慈善机构，从最初收容照顾老幼孤寡和穷困水手，到现代化的养老服务社区，满足国民退休后三四十年的晚年幸福生活需求。经过几百年发展，养老社区实现了很大的蜕变，大大提升了美国养老服务水准。二战后，养老社区在规划建设和运营管理方面日益专业化、标准化、社会化，成为庞大社会保障体系的重要组成部分。

The American retirement community can be traced back to the social charities of the colonial period, from the initial shelter and care for the widowed, lonely and poor sailors, to the modern retirement service community to meet the needs of the citizens for a happy life in their later years for 30 or 40 years. After hundreds of years of development, the elderly community has achieved a magnificent transformation, greatly improving the quality of elderly care services in the United States. After World War II, pension communities have become increasingly large-scale, specialized, standardized and socialized in planning, construction and operation management, and become an important part of the huge social security system. There are profound reasons behind the prosperity of American pension community in the 1960s and 1970s, which can be analyzed from the historical background of population, economy, politics and society.

The old-age service in America is very developed, and the old-age community plays an important role in it. Its mature operation and management model has great reference value.

The so-called "retirement community" refers to the residential area where the elderly live for the elderly, which first appeared in the United States in history. In the old-age care community, the elderly take care of themselves or are assisted by family members to take care of their lives, participate in social activities, or receive care and help from the society. From the perspective of construction scale, elderly communities are scattered in different states across the United States, ranging from small facilities for patients with alzheimer's disease to common apartments for the elderly, large commercial real estate and even independent communities or elderly towns with exclusive zip codes. At present, the United States has formed a pattern of coexistence of "specially constructed old-age care communities" and "naturally formed old-age care communities". Naturally formed communities for the aged are mostly formed spontaneously by residents. In many communities, the young people move out continuously after they become adults, and the proportion of the elderly population increases gradually, so the community gradually transitions to the elderly community.

The earliest retirement communities in the United States can be traced back to the "casley retirement community" before independence. In 1772, according to the will of Dr. John Kearsley, the church of Philadelphia established a Christian church hospital in Philadelphia with his legacy, covering an area of 13 acres, which was specially designed for the poor and weak widows. Later, it gradually developed into an independent non-profit advanced nursing community, providing continuous care for low-income elderly people. Starting with this hybrid charity community, the old-age community developed very slowly in the United States. In the 1830s, there were old-age communities built for retired sailors in merchant ships on staten island in New York. In 1852, a similar old-age community appeared in Boston.

After the civil war, the north and south realized the unification of economic development mode, and the United States quickly embarked on the road of industrial capitalism development. The 1870 s and 1870 s heyday is the industrialization and urbanization, the urban construction and community management on the right track, in improving society, under the impetus of the progressive movement philanthropy especially community care achieved great development, many cities have community service center provides some amateurism old-age care services, but it will take time for the special pension community built. 30 s, under the serious impact of economic crisis, unemployment and poverty unusually prominent, especially the elderly life difficult, to maintain social stability, August 14, 1935, the Roosevelt administration promulgated the social security act, including social insurance and public assistance, social services, elderly disability insurance, medicaid, pregnant women and children with disabilities aid six aspects, the law stipulates clearly the retirement age is 65 years old, the old age insurance and unemployment insurance, and this is the first in the history of the social security act, marked the U.S. government began formal involvement in social security affairs. With the passage of time, various social security measures were constantly improved. In 1939, disability insurance and old-age pension for the elderly survivors were added. Since 1940, the government began to pay pension on a monthly basis, and old-age pension has become an important part of the national social security system. In 1937, the federal government promulgated the first housing act, which focused on the construction of public housing for low-income people. It made a slight reference to the housing for the elderly and the disabled, but did not mention the community for the aged. From the theory to the reality, there was no significant progress in the community for the aged in this period. During the following two world wars, the development of the community for the aged was also in a state of inhibition.

After World War II, the American community for the elderly ushered in a new stage of development, community planning, facility construction, service content are increasingly perfect, to the 1950s, several western states have appeared community construction programs. In 1954, two developers purchased a 320-acre farmland in maricopa county, Arizona, and built the famous old-age care community, young town, which became the first old-age care community with age limit in American history. Since then, age limit for admission has become a common feature of old-age care community. Since the 50 s, the United States sign an ageing society increasingly obvious, widespread attention on aging, along with the worldwide community mode gradually replace the institutional care has become the mainstream in the care of the elderly daily life, the states appear many for-profit and nonprofit endowment institutions, become social endowment service support, professional pension institutions and non-professional community care complement each other, provide essential pension business prosperity. In the 1950s and 1960s, the economic situation was booming and the real estate development continued to boom. The government successively introduced various relevant policies and laws. The housing law of 1959 stipulated that loans were provided directly to the housing projects for the elderly, and the financial support was increased year by year thereafter. Driven by the new progress of suburbanization and postwar urbanization, housing supply and demand were flourishing, and commercial real estate development entered a new golden period, which strongly promoted the construction of elderly care community to scale, specialization and standardization, and the elderly care community began to flourish. The world-renowned "sun city" elderly care community was built in the early 1960s and became famous after its completion in the 1980s. It is still a model of elderly care community today. With the gradual deepening of the aging population and the increasing number of retired elderly people, the government's construction of apartments for the elderly or the provision of housing subsidies led to an increase in government expenditure year by year. After the oil crisis in the 1970s, the government's tax revenue decreased, resulting in a two-in-one situation that led to a sharp increase in the fiscal deficit of governments at all levels. To get rid of financial difficulties in 1968, the federal government passed the act of housing and urban development, adjust the previous vigorously the construction of public housing policies by the government, to provide qualified developers and home buyers are certain low-interest loans, a fiscal burden relief, the policy be to encourage private capital to enter the endowment real estate development important legislation, pension benefit community construction. To conform to the requirements of society in 1987, the federal government through the nursing reform act, while improve the pension agency service standard, detailed specification the pension agency service content, service quality and service procedures, etc., and financial penalties for not DaBiaoZhe these measures have prompted pension further towards the standardization, standardization, scientific community.

The nineties of the last century, the United States realized the social endowment service, market and civil power plays a dominant role in the pension business, formed a unique American pension road, the United States was the first to be dominated country to provide pension services market, laid the "socialist market economy" status of the welfare state. Ginsburg called the "socialist market economy" the welfare state, while ace flat - Anderson calls "liberal welfare state", but no matter how different the definition of scholars, the United States is clearly dependent on and use the market means the typical countries, to solve the problem of welfare unless governments to do a good job of legislative and regulatory, the U.S. government's main role is in strict accordance with the standard to provide basic subsidies for low and middle income earners class especially the poor, encourage the majority of citizens through the market to solve their own problems. Nowadays, tens of thousands of pension communities, large and small, are all over the states in the United States, driving the economic development of the pension industry and becoming a new economic growth point. According to relevant reports, in 1986, the consumption amount of the elderly in the United States reached 800 billion dollars, accounting for 18% of the GDP of the United States that year. However, in the new round of economic crisis since 2008, the development of the elderly community in the United States did not suffer much impact, which can be seen as a unique show in the generally weak American real estate industry.

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