They should promote tourism more, to improve the condition of the national park. In the case of the zoo, as the more tourists became aware of the condition of animals, more people started opposing the zoo, and finally they closed it. On the other hand, to invite many tourists, there are costs for transportation, environment and park rangers. More people consume more petroleum and cars that cause air pollution or soil erosion, and they need more rangers to look after them. Therefore, it is effective to promote national park tours by inviting group trips. The advantage of group or package tours is costs effectiveness. Because they can use public transportation such as buses, they consume less petroleum for transportation per person. Also, because they can look after each other during a trip, they require less park rangers. In addition, they can improve their understanding of environment there, through group discussion and works.
As the first national park in the world, the Yellowstone National Park has been developing for tourists with new challenges and mistakes. The U.S. National Park Service created zoos to entertain tourists, but animal condition there dissatisfied the tourists. They prepared beer feeding ground for restaurant customers, but it made bears rely on human diet and disturbed campers. Then, after they started looking at feeding bears along a road as a new attraction for tourists, tourists were against it because they did not want their friendly bears to be killed because of humans’ egoism.
Therefore, they turned their policy and started informing tourists the dangerousness of the bears. As a result, there was only one person injured by bear-related cause in 2003. In 1931, it was about a hundred bear-related injuries. Furthermore, the National Park Service focused on only conservation of herbivorous animals but not of predatory animals. The wolf goes extinction by 1930’s and the extinction destroyed environmental balance in the national park. It caused difficulties for the park rangers to maintain environment in the national park to keep tourists satisfaction high. Often, when management by the National Park Service had gone wrong direction and destroyed natural balance, tourism fixed their mistakes by decreasing the tourist’s satisfaction. Because tourist went to the national park with their expectation, when they noticed some kinds of destruction and disappointed there, they were likely to take actions.
Therefore, they turned their policy and started informing tourists the dangerousness of the bears. As a result, there was only one person injured by bear-related cause in 2003. In 1931, it was about a hundred bear-related injuries. Furthermore, the National Park Service focused on only conservation of herbivorous animals but not of predatory animals. The wolf goes extinction by 1930’s and the extinction destroyed environmental balance in the national park. It caused difficulties for the park rangers to maintain environment in the national park to keep tourists satisfaction high. Often, when management by the National Park Service had gone wrong direction and destroyed natural balance, tourism fixed their mistakes by decreasing the tourist’s satisfaction. Because tourist went to the national park with their expectation, when they noticed some kinds of destruction and disappointed there, they were likely to take actions.
2.1 Economic aspects
In 1895, superintendent of the national park approved first construction of zoo, which was operated by E.C. Waters. He had been a businessman conducting boat tours in Yellowstone Lake, and the idea of zoo had developed as connective attraction to his boat tours. His zoo had bison, elk and bighorn sheep as well as he had a permission to exhibit Crow Indians in his zoo. This zoo was closed in 1907, however, by 1924, the National Park Service started operating another zoo by themselves. They also endeavored to maximize tourists visit by improving accessibility, accommodation and visitor entertainment. Still, Zoo-Montana is hosting more than seventy thousands visitors every year in the area. U.S. National Park Service Superintendence wanted to provide opportunities for tourists to experience park’s wildlife closely, to improve tourists’ satisfaction. They focused on obedient coyote and promoted it as a wild dog, and they looked at bears foraging garbage near hotels and campsites. First, they created a feeding ground for restaurant customers, so they could feed bears with their leftovers. Later, the National Park Service found some bear foraging along a road to a Yellowstone visitor centre, and started encouraging tourists to feed bears as an attraction of the national park. (Biel, 2005, p. 7-22)(Yellowstone.com, 2007)
2.2 Environmental aspects.
Fundamentally, rules of the National Park Service have never allowed anyone to feed wild animals, but it was ignored to increase tourists’ satisfaction and economical benefits. Moreover, they published a brochure to teach visitors how to feed bears safely. In 1930’s, fifty to seventy grizzly bears gathered each evening to one feeding ground, which attracted more than a thousand tourists. Along the roadside, it was reported that some visitors had received minor injuries while they were feeding bears. In particular, even very tame bears became easily violent, when people behaved like they had food but actually they did not or people tried to feed bears directly from their hands. In 1931, 451 incidents of property damage and about a hundred injuries were reported. As people were feeding the bears, bear numbers had increased, but food from people did not grow so rapidly. Simply, because bears had been receiving food from humans, lack of food for bears caused increasing number of reported injuries. However, bears, which injured people, were recognized as dangerous and put down. (Biel, 2005).
The U.S. National Park Service had not been interested in conservation of predatory animals, such as wild bears and wolves. They only focused on conservation of safe herbivorous animals, such as elk and bison, because visitors can get safely closer. Concept of environmental conservation depended on visual value for the nature for tourists. In the case of wolves, because it was also threats to stocks of local farmers, and it disappeared from the Yellowstone National Park by 1930’s. Fortunately for the National Park Service, this wolf extinction stimulated elk to spend summer more open spaces rather than forests or steep slopes, this meant visitors could find elk more easily. On the other hand, the number of elk had increased to almost maximum of the carrying capacity of the national park. The growing numbers of elk caused overgrazing and started damaging natural vegetation. During1930-1986, the park rangers removed about twenty-six thousands elks from the national park. Also, the elk had become a major hunting target, so hunters removed about forty-five thousands elk during the same period. (Mao et al, 2005)(White & Garrott, 2005).
In the contrast to bears, wolf and elk, bison had been receiving good care from the National Park Service. They provided supplemental feed from 1939 to 1952 to increase the number of bison, and they started reducing artificial supplement as the number of bison was adopting in the natural regulation. The number has recovered to more than three thousands in 1990’s. (Gogan et al, 2005).
2.3 Socio-cultural aspects
As the national park had attracted more tourists, more people stared being aware of environmental condition and concern of the national park. As soon as Waters opened his zoo, tourists started claiming about the condition of animals. Because he fed those animals on leftovers from restaurants, animals had some kinds of vegetables as well as some amount of meat. That means tourists observed herbivore animals having meat, and this made them feel uncomfortable that those animals were so desperate to eat meat. They soon started writing letters for the superintendent of the national park to close the zoo. Those actions successfully closed the zoo in 1907, and those made the National Park Service prepare better conditions for animals when new zoo was opening. (Biel, 2005).
Moreover, when bears started depending on humans by learning that they could obtain food from humans, complains from other tourists forced abolishing the feeding ground. Because those bears knew they could have food from humans, they started wondering around campsites. It caused injured and property damages at the campsites and presence of bears around the campsite started threatening campers. Those campers complained about the existence of feeding ground. In addition, while the National Park Service was promoting the roadside bears as friendly bears as a major attraction of Yellowstone National Park, tourists had been reporting major injuries and fatalities by wild bears. Then when a bear injured visitors who were teasing the bear, the bear was killed. The National Park Service had to prohibit feeding bears along the road for the tourists’ safety and satisfaction. They wanted to reduce disappointments of tourists by injury. Tourists did not like to kill bears for humans’ egoism. (Biel, 2005).
In 1895, superintendent of the national park approved first construction of zoo, which was operated by E.C. Waters. He had been a businessman conducting boat tours in Yellowstone Lake, and the idea of zoo had developed as connective attraction to his boat tours. His zoo had bison, elk and bighorn sheep as well as he had a permission to exhibit Crow Indians in his zoo. This zoo was closed in 1907, however, by 1924, the National Park Service started operating another zoo by themselves. They also endeavored to maximize tourists visit by improving accessibility, accommodation and visitor entertainment. Still, Zoo-Montana is hosting more than seventy thousands visitors every year in the area. U.S. National Park Service Superintendence wanted to provide opportunities for tourists to experience park’s wildlife closely, to improve tourists’ satisfaction. They focused on obedient coyote and promoted it as a wild dog, and they looked at bears foraging garbage near hotels and campsites. First, they created a feeding ground for restaurant customers, so they could feed bears with their leftovers. Later, the National Park Service found some bear foraging along a road to a Yellowstone visitor centre, and started encouraging tourists to feed bears as an attraction of the national park. (Biel, 2005, p. 7-22)(Yellowstone.com, 2007)
2.2 Environmental aspects.
Fundamentally, rules of the National Park Service have never allowed anyone to feed wild animals, but it was ignored to increase tourists’ satisfaction and economical benefits. Moreover, they published a brochure to teach visitors how to feed bears safely. In 1930’s, fifty to seventy grizzly bears gathered each evening to one feeding ground, which attracted more than a thousand tourists. Along the roadside, it was reported that some visitors had received minor injuries while they were feeding bears. In particular, even very tame bears became easily violent, when people behaved like they had food but actually they did not or people tried to feed bears directly from their hands. In 1931, 451 incidents of property damage and about a hundred injuries were reported. As people were feeding the bears, bear numbers had increased, but food from people did not grow so rapidly. Simply, because bears had been receiving food from humans, lack of food for bears caused increasing number of reported injuries. However, bears, which injured people, were recognized as dangerous and put down. (Biel, 2005).
The U.S. National Park Service had not been interested in conservation of predatory animals, such as wild bears and wolves. They only focused on conservation of safe herbivorous animals, such as elk and bison, because visitors can get safely closer. Concept of environmental conservation depended on visual value for the nature for tourists. In the case of wolves, because it was also threats to stocks of local farmers, and it disappeared from the Yellowstone National Park by 1930’s. Fortunately for the National Park Service, this wolf extinction stimulated elk to spend summer more open spaces rather than forests or steep slopes, this meant visitors could find elk more easily. On the other hand, the number of elk had increased to almost maximum of the carrying capacity of the national park. The growing numbers of elk caused overgrazing and started damaging natural vegetation. During1930-1986, the park rangers removed about twenty-six thousands elks from the national park. Also, the elk had become a major hunting target, so hunters removed about forty-five thousands elk during the same period. (Mao et al, 2005)(White & Garrott, 2005).
In the contrast to bears, wolf and elk, bison had been receiving good care from the National Park Service. They provided supplemental feed from 1939 to 1952 to increase the number of bison, and they started reducing artificial supplement as the number of bison was adopting in the natural regulation. The number has recovered to more than three thousands in 1990’s. (Gogan et al, 2005).
2.3 Socio-cultural aspects
As the national park had attracted more tourists, more people stared being aware of environmental condition and concern of the national park. As soon as Waters opened his zoo, tourists started claiming about the condition of animals. Because he fed those animals on leftovers from restaurants, animals had some kinds of vegetables as well as some amount of meat. That means tourists observed herbivore animals having meat, and this made them feel uncomfortable that those animals were so desperate to eat meat. They soon started writing letters for the superintendent of the national park to close the zoo. Those actions successfully closed the zoo in 1907, and those made the National Park Service prepare better conditions for animals when new zoo was opening. (Biel, 2005).
Moreover, when bears started depending on humans by learning that they could obtain food from humans, complains from other tourists forced abolishing the feeding ground. Because those bears knew they could have food from humans, they started wondering around campsites. It caused injured and property damages at the campsites and presence of bears around the campsite started threatening campers. Those campers complained about the existence of feeding ground. In addition, while the National Park Service was promoting the roadside bears as friendly bears as a major attraction of Yellowstone National Park, tourists had been reporting major injuries and fatalities by wild bears. Then when a bear injured visitors who were teasing the bear, the bear was killed. The National Park Service had to prohibit feeding bears along the road for the tourists’ safety and satisfaction. They wanted to reduce disappointments of tourists by injury. Tourists did not like to kill bears for humans’ egoism. (Biel, 2005).
IUCN category for the Yellowstone National Park is category II; a protected area managed mainly for ecosystem protection and recreation. It was established as the first national park in the world in 1872, with areas of about nine thousand square kilometers in the Untied Sates. Recently, the national park is known as a paradise for wild animals that are free from human threat. However, the national park was developed as a conservation area for tourists. (Biel, 2005)(Groves, 2007)(U.S. National Park Service, 2007).
The primary purpose of the park rangers was to make visitors happy. They worked for extermination of predatory animals, except the animals that were recognized as an attraction, such as the bears, which have appeared in the Disney animation. Moreover, they encouraged tourists to feed natural bears along a roadside as an attraction of the national park. They have permitted hunting in the national park since 1883. Also, they captured some animals such as elk, black-tailed deer, antelope and other animals alive, and they exhibited those to tourists. Their facility has developed to nine hotels and lodges, which have about two thousands rooms total, and more than two thousand campsites, and about three thousand employees are working there every year. The whole number of tourists has also increased from five thousands in 1895 to two point eight million in 2005. (Biel, 2005)(U.S. National Park Service, 2007).
As more tourists had visited the national park, more people became aware of the condition of animals in the zoo and the roadside bears. The park rangers fed animals with leftover that tourists had left at the zoos, and the rangers killed a roadside bear when it had injured tourists, who might have been teasing the bear. Furthermore, the partial conservation to herbivorous animals had destroyed a balance of the ecosystem. Especially, lack of wolves had caused over reproduction of the elk, and those elks started eating more plants than before. It reduced green and started damaging natural view of the park. Therefore, the U.S. National Park Service has improved their treatments to animals, in order to increase satisfaction of the tourists. They have abolished the zoos, removed the roadside bears to nature and reintroduced wolves. The tourism had created problems but it also impelled park rangers to solve the problems, by increasing the awareness of tourists. Tourism development will support them to improve their situation.(Biel, 2005)(Mao et al, 2005)(White & Garrott, 2005).
The primary purpose of the park rangers was to make visitors happy. They worked for extermination of predatory animals, except the animals that were recognized as an attraction, such as the bears, which have appeared in the Disney animation. Moreover, they encouraged tourists to feed natural bears along a roadside as an attraction of the national park. They have permitted hunting in the national park since 1883. Also, they captured some animals such as elk, black-tailed deer, antelope and other animals alive, and they exhibited those to tourists. Their facility has developed to nine hotels and lodges, which have about two thousands rooms total, and more than two thousand campsites, and about three thousand employees are working there every year. The whole number of tourists has also increased from five thousands in 1895 to two point eight million in 2005. (Biel, 2005)(U.S. National Park Service, 2007).
As more tourists had visited the national park, more people became aware of the condition of animals in the zoo and the roadside bears. The park rangers fed animals with leftover that tourists had left at the zoos, and the rangers killed a roadside bear when it had injured tourists, who might have been teasing the bear. Furthermore, the partial conservation to herbivorous animals had destroyed a balance of the ecosystem. Especially, lack of wolves had caused over reproduction of the elk, and those elks started eating more plants than before. It reduced green and started damaging natural view of the park. Therefore, the U.S. National Park Service has improved their treatments to animals, in order to increase satisfaction of the tourists. They have abolished the zoos, removed the roadside bears to nature and reintroduced wolves. The tourism had created problems but it also impelled park rangers to solve the problems, by increasing the awareness of tourists. Tourism development will support them to improve their situation.(Biel, 2005)(Mao et al, 2005)(White & Garrott, 2005).
Under modernization theory, tourism development postponed traditional value to construct facilities, such as roads, port, airports and accommodations that they could utilize for development of other industries. (Williams, 2007). Without environmental concern, foreign investments and central authority led the construction of infrastructure, focusing on economic development. This development caused pollution and erosion, and it destroyed the traditional lifestyle and spiritual value of the land for indigenous people. (Buckley, 2005). Without economic value, developers did not support the local environment. (Hughes, Newsome & Macbeth, 2005). If economic development caused destruction of local environment, indigenous people had to move from their historical place. Otherwise, they had to create economic value there, entering into western culture. Development of tourism and shift of local economy system forced indigenous people to change their lifestyle and culture. They had to give up their traditional agriculture, fishing or craft, and start working as an employee earning salary in the tourism industry. Moreover, an image of destinations plays major role in tourism promotion, and commercialization of traditional culture became popular. (Awaritefe, 2004). Indigenous people lose authority to control their own cultural image, and lose their identity as a member of the traditions. Also, to improve satisfaction of tourists, local people can lose their traditional holy-day (Dawson, 2007). Tourists are not likely aware of local holiday, and they are arriving following their time-schedule. They need to operate tourism related businesses everyday, and this tourism work reduces other time to engage in their traditional work.
Tourism could have been able to diversify local economy from mono-agricultural, and provide a source of cash income, and it could sustain the local economy. Productions of a single kind of agriculture products are flexible and easily affected by natural conditions, such as weather and climate change. Tourism is more sustainable compared to the agriculture, because the behaviors of tourists are less affected by long rain or drought. However, the tourism tended to become an unsustainable mono-industry as well. Tourist numbers are affected by socio-political conditions, such as tourist activity or local conflicts, and tourism industries cannot transform themselves into other industries easily. For example, accommodation facilities cannot be used as a factory, and tourism employees with skills of bed making cannot apply their skills into another industry either. Once, indigenous people move away from their traditional lives and start working as tourism employees, they need to learn many social skills and they may lose their traditional knowledge. However, if the tourism industry declined its scale, they may lose their work and move back to basic life, where they may have difficulty, again. (Kaplan, 2004). Furthermore, as tourism develops and increases international visitors, there is a risk of informal economy, such as drug trafficking and crimes. The informal economy develops on a cash-market economy which indigenous people faced under modernizing. So, it is difficult to avoid the development of informal economy. The informal economy provides important opportunities for local people to practice cash-market economy. (Colantonio & Potter, 2006). However, it has a negative impact on local community and people, and it may alienate tourists from the destination. The development of informal economy worsens the sustainability of tourism, which strongly depends on visitors from foreign countries.
Under the western modernization theory, international organizations, such as World Bank and International Monetary Fund, practiced enclosure of indigenous people and land. The tourism development had supported external western large companies only who could follow the western legal system and play a main role in the tourism industry. Indigenous people were left behind in the tourism development because they could not understand the western rules. This difference between Western follower and other people caused unfair inequality of income. To enjoy economic development and improved life standard, they needed to throw their tradition away and to follow the western style of employment concept. They had to follow the western expectations and to enter the tourism industry. However, tourism is not sustainable enough for them to rely on. It is very easily affected by regional socio-political conflicts. Also, the development of informal economy, which came with cash-market economy, alienates tourists from the destination. Tourism development under modernization theory was for a few people and left majority of indigenous people behind the development.
Tourism could have been able to diversify local economy from mono-agricultural, and provide a source of cash income, and it could sustain the local economy. Productions of a single kind of agriculture products are flexible and easily affected by natural conditions, such as weather and climate change. Tourism is more sustainable compared to the agriculture, because the behaviors of tourists are less affected by long rain or drought. However, the tourism tended to become an unsustainable mono-industry as well. Tourist numbers are affected by socio-political conditions, such as tourist activity or local conflicts, and tourism industries cannot transform themselves into other industries easily. For example, accommodation facilities cannot be used as a factory, and tourism employees with skills of bed making cannot apply their skills into another industry either. Once, indigenous people move away from their traditional lives and start working as tourism employees, they need to learn many social skills and they may lose their traditional knowledge. However, if the tourism industry declined its scale, they may lose their work and move back to basic life, where they may have difficulty, again. (Kaplan, 2004). Furthermore, as tourism develops and increases international visitors, there is a risk of informal economy, such as drug trafficking and crimes. The informal economy develops on a cash-market economy which indigenous people faced under modernizing. So, it is difficult to avoid the development of informal economy. The informal economy provides important opportunities for local people to practice cash-market economy. (Colantonio & Potter, 2006). However, it has a negative impact on local community and people, and it may alienate tourists from the destination. The development of informal economy worsens the sustainability of tourism, which strongly depends on visitors from foreign countries.
Under the western modernization theory, international organizations, such as World Bank and International Monetary Fund, practiced enclosure of indigenous people and land. The tourism development had supported external western large companies only who could follow the western legal system and play a main role in the tourism industry. Indigenous people were left behind in the tourism development because they could not understand the western rules. This difference between Western follower and other people caused unfair inequality of income. To enjoy economic development and improved life standard, they needed to throw their tradition away and to follow the western style of employment concept. They had to follow the western expectations and to enter the tourism industry. However, tourism is not sustainable enough for them to rely on. It is very easily affected by regional socio-political conflicts. Also, the development of informal economy, which came with cash-market economy, alienates tourists from the destination. Tourism development under modernization theory was for a few people and left majority of indigenous people behind the development.
Tourism development, under modernization theory, was initiated by few elites in western countries (Hardy, 2003). They exported an idea of enclosure into the Third World, as they had done in their countries. Strong landowners ousted indigenous people and employed again only who and what was necessary for their industry. People, who could not follow ownership concept in the western style, were left behind in the development. Tourism was expected as one of many industries, which brings economic benefit and multiplier effect, but those only destroyed regional value and increase their dependency on foreign countries and risks of informal market.
In South Africa, Western investors took advantages of tourism development, by declaring landownership and using their dominated power (Muhanna, 2007). Because they were supported by larger capital, advanced ideas and stronger organizations, local people could not resist against their interventions. Also, among their traditional culture, local indigenous people did not have the concept of the ownership system. If local people could not understand a difference between western culture and their culture, they could not use the western legal framework to declare their right of the ownership. Under a liner concept of modernization theory, all human beings were going to learn advanced western style and catch up with western life standard. That means indigenous people had to study and follow western style, but western people did not have to look at indigenous culture. They had no doubts introducing the advanced western style into indigenous community. (Zografos & Kenrick, 2005). Therefore, the same as other industries, such as strip mining, cattle ranching, when tourism was also considered as a source of economic benefit (Cater, 2006), it took a mechanism of enclosure, which had been expanded in western countries. Moreover, modernists expected, as they had experienced in their country, that growth of one industry benefited a whole country and triggered development of other industries and improved the economic condition there. (Ferreira, 2004). However, ideas of modernization allowed local elite minority, particularly upper-officers in a government, to dominate their economy and took a control over the industry. Strong leaderships accelerated development of local economy, but it created social instability, such as income difference between rich and poor and disturbed sustainable development.
In South Africa, Western investors took advantages of tourism development, by declaring landownership and using their dominated power (Muhanna, 2007). Because they were supported by larger capital, advanced ideas and stronger organizations, local people could not resist against their interventions. Also, among their traditional culture, local indigenous people did not have the concept of the ownership system. If local people could not understand a difference between western culture and their culture, they could not use the western legal framework to declare their right of the ownership. Under a liner concept of modernization theory, all human beings were going to learn advanced western style and catch up with western life standard. That means indigenous people had to study and follow western style, but western people did not have to look at indigenous culture. They had no doubts introducing the advanced western style into indigenous community. (Zografos & Kenrick, 2005). Therefore, the same as other industries, such as strip mining, cattle ranching, when tourism was also considered as a source of economic benefit (Cater, 2006), it took a mechanism of enclosure, which had been expanded in western countries. Moreover, modernists expected, as they had experienced in their country, that growth of one industry benefited a whole country and triggered development of other industries and improved the economic condition there. (Ferreira, 2004). However, ideas of modernization allowed local elite minority, particularly upper-officers in a government, to dominate their economy and took a control over the industry. Strong leaderships accelerated development of local economy, but it created social instability, such as income difference between rich and poor and disturbed sustainable development.