留学生作业代写：Coping Mode of terrorism crime

下面为大家整理一篇优秀的paper代写范文- Coping Mode of terrorism crime，供大家参考学习，这篇论文讨论了恐怖主义犯罪应对模式。如今，恐怖主义犯罪的应对模式主要有司法模式、战争模式、治理模式。治理模式对于恐怖主义及反恐问题界定不同于战争模式、司法模式。这种界定具有决定性影响。其直接决定这三种反恐模式在视野、目标、思路、标准、力量、措施与手段、时间维度、战略角度、精神层面等方面的不同。

The mode of judicature, the mode of war and the mode of governance are three kinds of modes to deal with terrorist crimes. The judicial model defines terrorism as a criminal act. Therefore, anti-terrorism is the problem of investigating and attacking crime. The core of this model is to restore the authority of law and maintain social order. The mode of war defines terrorism as a kind of war act. The fight against terrorism is a matter of defeating or destroying the enemy and winning the war. The core of this model is to combat, annihilate and win the war against terrorists. The governance model defines terrorism as a lack of national security governance, inefficiency or failure, and the lack and inefficiency of public security services. To that end, counter-terrorism is to strengthen and improve the governance of terrorism issues in order to provide more effective security services. The core of this model is to create a secure environment. The governance model is different from the war mode and the judicial model to the terrorism and the anti-terrorism problem. This definition has a decisive impact. It directly determines these three types of counter-terrorism models in the field of vision, objectives, ideas, standards, strength, measures and means, time dimension, strategic angle, spiritual level and so on.

With a flick of the fingers, the incident has been over more than 10 years. Despite the joint boycott and attack of the world, the development trend of terrorist crime has not been suppressed or reversed in the world, but it has been rampant in some countries and regions. Although national counter-terrorism policies are in the context of content and other aspects, but because of the definition of terrorism, the nature of the threat to the different understanding of the basic methods of counter-terrorism and the choice of means, coupled with other specific factors, countries or a country at different times of counter-terrorism ideas, policies, There are often some differences in countermeasures.

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To better summarize and analyze these different anti-terrorism practices, the author classifies them as different coping modes of terrorist crimes. The mode of judicature, the mode of war and the mode of governance are three coping modes.

The judicial model is also called the police model, namely, the police organs, the judiciary, through the investigation, arrest, prosecution, trial of terrorists, to bring them to prison, to the fear of asset freezing and other ways to deal with terrorist crime patterns. It mainly defines terrorism as a criminal act which seriously endangers national security and social stability. To this end, counter-terrorism is the first to detect and combat crime problems. The core of this model is to restore the authority of law in order to maintain social order. The mode of war is the mode of dealing with terrorist crimes by means of military strike, the complete elimination of terrorists and the complete destruction of terrorist training camps. It mainly defines terrorism as an act of war. To this end, counter-terrorism is first considered as the problem of defeating or destroying the enemy and winning the war. The core of this model is to combat, annihilate and win the war.

Before the incident, the judicial model is a dominant mode in the world when dealing with terrorist crimes. The wave of terrorism that arose in the late 1960s had caused worldwide shock and concern, and most countries, after the shock subsided, basically used the police and the judiciary to deal with terrorist crimes on the basis of normal and lawful procedures, such as by amending relevant laws and regulations to monitor, apprehend, prosecute, try and detain terrorists. To outlaw and dissolve terrorist organizations. To some extent, these measures have achieved some effect. Of course, in that period, Russia, Israel and other countries ' counter-terrorism policies were also close to the war model. The United States has adopted a discriminatory approach to international and domestic terrorism. For external terrorism, it is considered a matter of national security. The Reagan administration had openly declared that terrorism was an act of war, and that the United States had waged a number of military strikes in the name of combating terrorism. For domestic terrorism, the main use of the judicial model, the Federal Bureau of Investigation and so on is the main body to deal with terrorism, especially in the mid 1980s, Congress passed legislation to explicitly define terrorism as a crime, the Federal Bureau of Investigation has played a more important role.

Before the end of the cold war, the judicial model was largely effective and adequate. In Western Europe and the United States, under the attack of the judiciary, many terrorists are either jailed or killed, committing suicide or abandoning terrorist activities. After the 80 's, most of the activities of terrorism in these areas, particularly those of indigenous terrorist organizations, have been forcefully curbed and their impact has been greatly reduced.

The "events" show that terrorism has been transformed into some kind of war, which, while regarded as a criminal act, is no longer an ordinary crime but a criminal act that has an important impact on international peace, stability and national security. Resolutions 1368th and 1373th adopted by the Security Council explicitly declaring that terrorism poses a threat to "international peace and security", and even declaring that the state of attack could thus act under the "inherent right of individual or collective self-defence", the invocation of such a right to self-defence would undoubtedly imply a war action. After this incident, the war pattern appeared to be the world's counter-terrorism-led and correct model under the influence and impetus of the Bush administration's global anti-terrorism war.

This shows that the two modes of justice and war are different in terms of the perspective of terrorism and the purpose of counter-terrorism, reliance on strength, method and so on. So what are the effects of these two modes?

With regard to the model of justice, Ronald corelinston believes that this counter-terrorism model has the educational function of eliminating the legality of terrorist acts and making terrorism an unacceptable means, and the advantages of punishing terrorists through punishment, and of transforming terrorists and disabling the ability of terrorist actors to act. In fact, when the casualties or losses caused by terrorism are relatively limited, it is a natural choice for a state, especially a State governed by the rule of law, to use the judicial model to deal with terrorism in its territory.

The United Nations Declaration on Terrorism declares that "terrorism in all its forms, wherever and by whomever committed, is an unjustifiable criminal act." "At the international level, terrorism is considered a criminal offence and it is a great step forward in the context of counter-terrorism crimes." At first, terrorism was often associated with anti-imperialist, anti-colonial and national liberation, and for that reason, there were often more serious differences between countries or groups for their meaning and legitimacy. Terrorist crimes are often politically motivated and, to that end, terrorists often defend themselves and seek refuge on the grounds of political persecution. Moreover, the political nature of terrorism makes it easy to relate to various political struggles. A number of States also took different positions on the basis of their own interests, using terrorism or counter-terrorism to achieve their other objectives. In addition to the existence of extradition of political prisoners under international law, terrorists often use this as an excuse for not being extradited and can easily evade punishment.

These have made international cooperation against terrorism a great challenge. The view that terrorism is a criminal offence and that the principle of "either prosecuting or trial" is established, namely, that the state's prosecution or trial of terrorists in its territory, either in accordance with its domestic law, or in the case of an extradition to a State subjected to its attack, would greatly harmonize the international community's position on counter-terrorism The loss of legitimacy of terrorism and the promotion of cooperation among States in the field of counter-terrorism. For terrorists or for prosecution or extradition, they have in fact become the positions and principles repeatedly reaffirmed in the United Nations anti-terrorism conventions and related counter-terrorism resolutions. In various areas of international counter-terrorism cooperation, but also most of the reference to this position and principle.

As the threat of terrorism increases, the judicial model can no longer effectively respond to the new terrorist threat. Attacks”

The attacks have strongly demonstrated and demonstrated the inadequacy of this model, which has contributed forcefully to the subsequent tilt of counter-terrorism from the judicial model to the war model. Traditionally, national security matters have been placed in priority and urgency, and general justice often does not cover the areas of national security. With the rise of terrorism in the national security agenda, the police and the judiciary have gradually given way to the core means of force in traditional national security.

The model of justice is a reactive model, usually the response of the police or the judiciary after the occurrence of a terrorist crime, rather than actively seeking intervention before it occurs, and its actions are often limited to bringing criminals to justice, arresting and restoring the original order. If the terrorist threat is very limited and the ex-post reaction can be reluctantly accepted, the model can be used. The judicial model of ex post facto reaction is not appropriate when the terrorist threat is very serious, especially when the terrorist acts of mass destruction have caused great losses.

There is usually a strict requirement for evidence in judicial proceedings. Terrorist incidents are usually secretly planned and carefully organized and difficult to obtain relevant evidence. Many terrorists, while posing a threat, may lack conclusive evidence to arrest them, or to be sentenced even if they are arrested. After the arrest of terrorists, they had to be released for lack of strong evidence, and those who had been released were soon involved in many cases of terrorist activity. In normal judicial proceedings, there is strict protection of the rights of the accused or the suspect, such as the right of the suspect to remain silent, not to be subjected to torture, and the terrorists are apt to use these rights to prevent the judiciary from obtaining evidence against them, and the judiciary obtains evidence by secret means or unlawful means, may not be used in court.

In addition, there are other flaws in the judicial model:

First, the judicial model procedures are complex, lengthy and often protracted, and may not meet the need for resolute fighting and rapid response in counter-terrorism. Secondly, in the normal situation, in order to protect the rights of citizens, the law of intelligence agencies, such as information collection means, scope, information sharing, intelligence use, and so there are more stringent provisions. Some provisions are detrimental to the early detection, suppression of terrorist plots and the fight against terrorists. Third, the judicial model of the demand for evidence may be detrimental to intelligence work. Such as the need for evidence in the normal administration of justice to have a clear source of information, to have witnesses, etc., these may result in information leakage and endanger the informant's security. Four, sometimes, in order to obtain more important evidence, it is necessary to deal with some criminal suspects, including not to prosecute, or temporarily do not arrest and trial. These problems are often not taken into account by the judicial model, which may not be conducive to better protection of national security or the of terrorist threats. Five, the trial and detention of terrorists may pose some problems. If the terrorists could use the trial, hype their claims and condemn their opponents. Even if they are jailed, they may promote advocacy, attract attention, recruit members, and even organize terrorist attacks outside the prison by initiating various struggles such as hunger strikes. Six, there are some difficulties in apprehending and trying foreign terrorists, and extradition is more difficult.

The war model is considered to be free of the above flaws. If terrorism is defined as war, terrorists, being enemies, can direct the use of military forces to carry out rapid, timely and vigorous blows to eliminate terrorists and their facilities. There is no judicial model of the evidence, procedures and other aspects of the requirements and restrictions. In addition, war can greatly deter terrorists and the act of providing assistance to the international community to demonstrate the determination and will of counter-terrorism, which is very beneficial to the mobilization of counter-terrorism and increase the morale of the counter-terrorism side.

Of course, there are many flaws in the pattern of warfare:

First, war has great risks, including uncertainty. The war on terror in the country is more likely to be a pretext for the government to suppress and combat dissent or to achieve its own autocratic rule, rather than to really confront the threat of terror. New York and Washington are hiding terrorists and preparing for terrorist attacks, but it is absurd and pointless for the United States government to wage a war to bomb these cities. Secondly, war is neither necessary nor an effective means of combating terrorism. At present, terrorist organizations have become a kind of loose, decentralized network level structure. In this kind of net structure, even if one link is destroyed, the other link will not be affected, therefore has the very strong vitality. Third, the Government may, on the basis of a state of emergency, violate human rights, do whatever it wants, trample the legal system and conceal other improper intentions and actions. Four, seeing a terrorist as a warrior increases the legitimacy of terrorists and acts of war, promotes their status and attractiveness, and creates obstacles for the anti-terror party in apprehending, detaining, prosecuting and trying terrorists. Five, the resulting violence, the casualties and other negative consequences, to some extent, outweigh the terrorism itself. In recent years, some U.S. troops in Iraq, Afghanistan and other massacres of the poor. Abuse of violence often creates more injustice, confusion and conflict, leading to more terrorist attacks. Terrorists are not to be killed, on the contrary, the brutal attack may even produce more terrorists. Before the "war" incident, Afghanistan, Iraq, Pakistan and other countries have less terrorist attacks, the United States in the aftermath of the terrorism campaign, the current number of terrorist attacks in the world about half. The model of war sees only terrorists and violent terror itself, and ignores the circumstances and conditions in which terrorist activities and their production, operation and impact occur. This model focuses primarily on retaliation against terrorists and violent activities, and not on how to deter or fundamentally give terrorists away terrorist activity before violent terror occurs. Seven, the threat of terrorism is persistent and cannot be eradicated. Historical experience has shown that military intervention has rarely succeeded in halting terrorism and ending the threat of terrorism, but temporarily undermining terrorist organizations and related terrorist networks. The frequent phenomenon is that direct military intervention brings short-term victories, but it is unsuccessful in the long run and may even lead to more serious dangers and threats.

Terrorism has indeed become a national security issue, but the threat of terrorism is different from traditional national security threats, but a new national security threat. To deal with terrorism, we should not treat it as a general law and order problem, mainly take the judicial model, and it can not equate to the traditional national security threat, but mainly depends on the mode of war.

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Research Proposal写作结构讲解

Research Proposal，就是一种研究性的论文，用于申请博士或者毕业论文，主要是为了告诉别人你的研究到底是什么。Research Proposal最忌讳的就是举一个看起来很高大上的课题，但实际你是不可能完成的，老师也会将其打回。下面就让我们从结构上看看Research Proposal应该怎么开始写。

Research Proposal的结构

1、Title

这个题目应该是简介且具有描述性的。这个有点难，如果太简洁，你可能说不清楚自己想要做什么。但是有了描述性，你可能一下子写了一个长句子。比如很多学生会这样开头“An investigation of . . .”这样开头不是不可以，但是如果太过冗长，会让人觉得你对这个课题并不了解。最好要在开头明确的指出functional relationship，比如the independent and dependent variables. 并且你提出的角度是新颖独特的，有研究空间的，而不是已经有了明确定论或者已经被广泛讨论很多年的问题。

这里跑个题，很多人通过做lit review，找题目。记住，要按照年份搜索，从最新的paper中找灵感！不要按照引用次数搜索，一般被顶在最上面的，是已经被引用了几千次，十几年前，甚至几十年前的经典著作。

2、Abstract

这部分大概300字左右，非常重要！有多重要呢？相当于你的发型，你的粉底液（油腻的头发和斑驳的粉底，没有几个人再想透过你的外表看到你的内心）。所以，这个不应该是你完成全篇之后，在deadline之前急急忙忙凑上去的半页。这部分，就是两个内容，what & why。

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具体来说可以分解成下面的几句话：

前面的大部分都是what。阐述清楚你的research question，这个可能一两句话，并且再加一两句，阐述清楚研究范围。这个研究不是全球性的，可能只是某个国家，某个地区，特定人群等。（范围越窄，你研究起来越轻松。）

接下来是一句假设，hypothesis。这个其实不用担心，后期写论文的时候还能再改。

接下来是method，用几句话说下你是如何设计的（design），准备怎么进行研究（procedures），并且如何收集数据（文科的话说明是不是一手数据，是不是用调查问卷，还是去数据库下载数据包。理工科的话要说用什么机器/设备采集到的samples）

最后的两句是why。说你的研究价值。如果前人已经做了类似研究，那么你的创新点在哪里。比如研究角度，研究方法或结果的对比来写你的创新点。

3、Introduction

很多人直接写introduction，然后把literature review的内容涵盖在里面，这样也可以。但是并不是introduction可以和literature review在一起混着乱写，这应该是两个不同的部分。

如果你分开写，先写了introduction。那么第一部分/段先阐明言研究背景background。是在怎样的背景下引发的这个问题。这个问题是怎么和你的研究课题联系到一起的。（注意，这个时候先不要开始杂七杂八的copy lit review中的内容，这样会看起来很不清楚。你先说这个问题在什么领域，引起很多人多年的关注，就好了，只要让你的课题看起来挺有意思挺重要就好了，先别说细节呢。）

其实这部分并不好写，一不小心就和lit review混在一起了。首先你需要找一个比较热门的领域切入。其次，你需要找到一个比较合适的历史背景，不是随便从文献综述里扒拉出来一个就行。第三就是把你的研究课题给找个合适的位置放进去。最后，在列举几个领域内的主要领英人物和代表性的著作。同样，这里也别开始一个一个的做lit review，这里列举的目的是说明你研究的重要性。

对于懒一些，只求毕业论文过的同学，你只需要一个一个回答下面的问题（先说清楚，我不推荐你们这样做啊！！！）：

①State the research problem, which is often referred to as the purpose of the study.

②Provide the context and set the stage for your research question in such a way as to show its necessity and importance.

③indicate why it is worth doing.

④Briefly describe the major issues and sub-problems to be addressed by your research.

⑤Identify the key independent and dependent variables of your experiment. Alternatively, specify the phenomenon you want to study.

⑥State your hypothesis or theory, if any. For exploratory or phenomenological research, you may not have any hypotheses. (Please do not confuse the hypothesis with the statistical null hypothesis.)

⑦Set the delimitation or boundaries of your proposed research in order to provide a clear focus.

4、Literature Review

这可以是Introduction的第二部分，但是很多申请博士的同学们还是把这个单分出来一部分，这样看起来很清楚。这部分需要列出学者已经对研究问题有过哪些研究，他们是如何进行研究的，并且取得了哪些研究结果。

但不能是单纯的列举，你需要重点分析一下前人研究不足，并且说明你的研究在哪些方面弥补了这些不足。比如你说A在2000年做了什么研究，但是B在2010年发现了问题，补充了什么。但是你的研究，运用什么方法，既解决了A的问题，又把B方法的缺陷性给优化了之类的。单纯的列举，不能体现出你独立的思考和分析能力。（只求论文过的可以按照年份或者方法列举一下，但是申请PHD的不行，教授会一下子就没有兴趣的，觉得你是个不善于思考的学生）

分类：这部分需要把你读过的paper做个分类，比如我都是打印出来，分类好，想写哪部分就拿起那一叠，其他的不要混在一起放。这些分类可以按照研究方法，研究人群，理论模型的不同来分。这样做的目的就是让你的lit review 更有条理。如果你实在写不出gap，也不知道怎么弥补不足，最起码你需要按照一个逻辑规律来列举。

连贯性：比如你把读过的paper分成了abcd四个部分，这四个部分不应该是独立的，他们彼此之间肯定是有联系的。所以你要按照这个内部联系来组织你这几个分类。先说哪部分，由那个部分引出下一个部分，这个需要好好思考一下。

5、Methods

这部分主要阐明研究所采用的方法，具体方法根据学科而异，要能够系统的回答你前面提出的问题。这个其实是最重要的一部分，你需要按照下面的四个顺序来回答相应的问题。

方法设计：Design -Is it a questionnaire study or a laboratory experiment? What kind of design do you choose? 你是收集调查问卷，还是做实验？

研究范围：Subjects or participants – Who will take part in your study ? What kind of sampling procedure do you use? 是特定人群，年份，还是某种样品？

仪器/方法：Instruments – What kind of measuring instruments or questionnaires do you use? Why do you choose them? Are they valid and reliable? 你是采用了那种方式的问卷/实验仪器/计算方法？

步骤：Procedure – How do you plan to carry out your study? What activities are involved? How long does it take? 你准备怎么展开上述提到的方法？需要多长时间？

6、Expected Outcomes and research plan

这里没有results，因为你还没有开始做。但是你可以列一个表格，你准备在什么时候得到什么样的结果，有一个怎样的进度。可以用几句话预计一下你理想状态下的结果。但是也不用太纠结，等真的开始时，这块也可以随时改变的。

7、Reference

关于reference的引用,我们前面给大家整理过很多文章，包括不同格式引用不同来源都有介绍，比如《CMS论文格式引用纸质和网络词典Reference写作方法》、《APA格式英文论文引用纸质和网上词典Reference写作规范》等等，还有一些可以帮助大家自动生成reference list的工具软件，有需要的同学们可以去使用。

总的来说Research Proposal写起来还是非常有难度，特别是对我们中国留学生来说，其学术严谨性和学术要求都非常高，所以同学们一定多花点时间去研究。

想要了解更多英国留学资讯或者需要英国代写，请关注51Due 英国论文代写平台，51Due是一家专业的论文代写机构，专业辅导海外留学生的英文论文写作，主要业务有essay代写、paper代写、assignment代写。亲们可以进入主页了解和获取更多关于论文代写以及英国留学资讯，我们将为广大留学生提升写作水平，帮助他们达成学业目标。如果您有论文代写需求，可以咨询我们的客服QQ：800020041。

Paper代写：A Discussion Of Elaborative Rehearsal And Long-Term Memory

下面为大家整理一篇优秀的paper代写范文- A Discussion Of Elaborative Rehearsal And Long-Term Memory，供大家参考学习，这篇论文讨论复述与记忆。复述是一种有用的策略，可以利用内部语言在大脑中再现学习的过程，以保持工作记忆中的信息，并使他的注意力集中在学习上。在学习的过程中，复述是记忆的主要手段，许多新的信息，如姓名、外来词等，都是在短时间内被记住的，只有经过反复的复述才能保持长期的记忆状态。

The rehearsal strategy is a useful strategy to use the internal language to reproduce the learning material or stimulus in the brain to maintain information in the working memory and to keep his attention on the learning material. In the process of study, the rehearsal is a major means of memory, and many new information, such as names, foreign words, etc., is to be remembered in a short time and remained in a long-term manner only after repeated rehearsal. Given the importance of rehearsal, it is necessary to explore it further. Thus, this article is to have a discussion of one sort of rehearsal---elaborative rehearsal and long-term memory, with reference to SQ3R theory and Cornell note-taking skills.

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Short-term memory has limitation of volume and time, and it can be transferred into long-term memory by using elaborative rehearsal. In the daily life, it is a common experience that even if a person learns new knowledge, it is hard for the person to memorize unfamiliar things that he or she has never cognized before. Thus, it is becoming a sort of ineffective learning to some degree. For example, after people remember a strange number, they usually are to forget it after the dial. Those are classical examples of short-term memory. It is a process in which a lot of real-time information may become the focus of consciousness in a short period of time, then the short term memory is used. But the capacity of memory is limited, which is about 7 ± 2 units. According to a research, “employing a strategic and prescribed approach to reading course material increases student recall and subsequent exam performance”(p.145). It shows that on the one hand, the long term memory is a key factor related to exam performance and on the other hand, there could be an effective use of strategic method in the course material to improve such memory recall, which further leads to positive impact on the students’ academic results. Thus, short-term memory is easy to forget, and when people must be very focused in order to ensure that the code is to be transferred into a long time, then long-term memory is used. It is about the information that is being saved in the memory successfully. And unlike the short-term memory, long-term memory is mainly a large number of organized knowledge, which is not easy to be remembered. Thus, there is a huge advantage of long-term memory. It is necessary to come up effective ways to transfer the former into the latter. Furthermore, if duration discrimination of longer intervals is mediated by working memory functions, and in particular by processes associated with transfer of information into long-term memory, only elaborative but not maintenance rehearsal should interfere with duration discrimination (Rammsayer, & Ulrich, 129). Elaborative rehearsal is one of the strategy to keep memory in long term. Successful learners use metacognitive elaborative rehearsal to process and make sense of incoming information (p.1). With the role of rehearsal, it is easier for learning materials to to be transferred to the long-term memory and be stored in the short-term memory as well. And the elaborative rehearsal as one sort of rehearsal is serving this role better by repeating to make the information in the short-term memory obtained further processing and organization, so that it is to establish contact with the stored information in the long-term memory. This can help the short-term memory to transfer to the long-term memory in a more effective manner. For elaborative rehearsal, the processing level is high, which is marked with initiative of learners. Thus, to a certain degree, by disintegrating new knowledge into former knowledge in the brain and helping connecting them in mind, elaborative rehearsal can help extend duration of long-term memory and overcome the limitation of volume and time of short-term memory.

Elaborative rehearsal has roughly three strategies. The first is about digging the meaning of the information itself, and deepening the connection of the information. The elaborative retrieval operations that activate related concepts and generate effective retrieval cues or “routes” to a target memory item on later retrieval attempts(Carpenter,1563 ). For example, when people remember that the hippocampus plays in the role of memory and space positioning, it is very academic. But it can be transformed into "hippocampus is a personal GPS system", and it is easy to remember the function of the hippocampus and will not forget. Second, the information is needed to be organized deeply. Elaborative rehearsal is a working memory function that involves processes designed to more deeply encode and store information for later retrieval (Craik and Lockhart 1972, Klatsky 1988).Long-term memory is basically the organization and storage of information, so in the use elaborative rehearsal, it helps organized information deeply . The easiest way is to build a knowledge tree, and building a knowledge structure according to the catalog is a simple and effective way. Thirdly, it is to establish contact, and mastery with the existing knowledge and memory. For example, when one reads this memory notes, people experience comparison, matching, which is gradually integrated into a new knowledge system, and requires more in-depth thinking, but the effect is immediate. If elaborative rehearsal takes full advantage of SQ3R theory and Cornell note-taking skills such as associative meaning and fractional memory, it is much more effective in helping people to maintain long-term memory.SQ3R is one of effective strategic methods that could be used by people. SQ3R is the acronym of each reading step, including survey, question, read, recite and review. In accordance with the sequence, learners roughly browse the material at the beginning, analysis material later and look back finally. Elaborative rehearsal also follows this process. Cornell note-taking skills separate note paper into 3 parts. The button of the paper is used to summarize all material, while review clues are put into left column and the rest of paper is used to first roughly note-taking by using symbols and abbreviation. At the main note-taking area, the first impression of knowledge is emerged without filtrating, whereas learners cover this part and only remind what they have learned by key words in the left column. Both of them omit lots of unimportant details to save memorize energy and link knowledge through key words to remain memory in long term , as elaborative rehearsal reduces the strangeness and material volume of new knowledge and to make memory remain longer.

However, despite the effectiveness of memory is ensured with the use of elaborative rehearsal, it leads to the questions of what the real benefits of elaborative rehearsal can bring to the ability of thinking and expression. It is noted that elaborative rehearsal is not a simple repetition, and by contrast, it is a creative process, which can allow memory, thinking, and expression to be organically combined into one unified whole process. Memory is the basis for elaborative rehearsal. The learners quickly remember some important words in the text, the structure of the article and its specific content. Thus, the process of elaborative rehearsalis in general regarded as the process of transferring the short-term memory into long term memory. But, it neglects a fact that elaborative rehearsal is not just about the long term memory of the text, as it must make the comprehensive, general, and appropriate choice according to certain requirements, and the contents of the memory. The measure of meta cognitive elaboration relies on self-report and suffers from the limitations associated with all such measures.(p.15). Thus, it requires the learners to carefully select the words, and organize the material in connection with the long term memory. In this process, to stimulate interest is also a key factor. The learners can put forward some of the problems of the content of materials to be memorized, causing their own thinking, and enriching the learner's ideas. This is the process of thinking on the basis of memory. Also, some techniques are needed at this stage such as the important plot is to bedealt with mainly and the other plot can be simplified as far as possible. Often, elaborative rehearsal, can develop learners' thinking ability, and cultivate students to think about the habit of the problem. It is also to stimulate learners’ need to express the premise. Finally, it is expression stage of elaborative rehearsal . Elaborative rehearsal's ultimate goal is not just the memory and its effectiveness, and the ability to improve thinking, but also it is about the learners to use accurate and clear language to speak or write out it. The most critical issue about elaborative rehearsal in this step is that it is conducive to cultivating and improving students’ ability to express. Thus, elaborative rehearsal is in fact a complicated process involving different stages. In addition, an effective elaborative rehearsal must follow certain procedures, which included memory, thinking, and expression.

To sum up, elaborative rehearsal with the use of SQ3R theory and Cornell note-taking skills is effective in increasing the possibility of attainment of information in the long-term memory. However, there are some limitation of elaborative rehearsal partly as its over reliance on self-report.

Works cited

Carpenter, S. K. (2009). Cue strength as a moderator of the testing effect: The benefits of elaborative retrieval. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 35, 1563–1569. doi:10.1037/a0017021

Harris, J., & De Qualls, C. (2000). The association of elaborative or maintenance rehearsal with age, reading comprehension, and verbal working memory performance. Aphasiology, 14(5-6), 515-526.

Rammsayer, & Ulrich. (2011). Elaborative rehearsal of nontemporal information interferes with temporal processing of durations in the range of seconds but not milliseconds. Acta Psychologica, 137(1), 127-133.

Roberts, Greg, Scammacca, Nancy, Osman, David J., Hall, Colby, Mohammed, Sarojani S., & Vaughn, Sharon. (2014). Team-Based Learning: Moderating Effects of Metacognitive Elaborative Rehearsal and Middle School History Content Recall. Educational Psychology Review, 26(3), 451-468.

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Paper代写：The Fracking

下面为大家整理一篇优秀的paper代写范文- The Fracking，供大家参考学习，这篇论文讨论了水力压裂法。水力压裂法，又称水力压裂法，是一种钻探技术，用于从更深的地面开采石油和天然气。经过50多年的发展，如今水力压裂技术已经成为水力压裂和水平钻井的结合，在美国广泛应用。这项技术在20世纪50年代被提出，在60年代就得到了完善。经过大量的实验和野外工作，它被确定为一种安全的获取石油的方法。

1. INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND

Fracking, otherwise known as hydraulic fracturing, is a drilling technique used for the extraction of oil and natural gas from deeper levels of the ground. With over five decades of development, fracking nowadays has become the combination of hydraulic fracturing and horizontal drilling, which is widely used in the United States (Hardy et al. 2014, pp. 2). Fracking involves drilling over one mile vertically into the ground where the oil or natural gas is detected. The depth of drilling can vary from 1.5 to 3 kilometers depending on the distribution of the oil and gas. After reaching the shale layers of the rocks, the direction of drilling turns horizontal by bending 90 degrees, enabling multiple wells to be built for one drilling site by extending horizontally. The wells are then secured with cement or steel pipes. A mixture of water, sand and chemicals (slickwater) is injected into the pipes under huge pressure, shattering the rock layers with sand and releasing the oil and gas between the rock layers (Norris et al. 2016, pp. 325). The chemical additives are used so that the pipes are protected from being damaged by the sand grains, causing leakage and pollution. Along with the gas and oil that is released through the pipers after rock fracturing, millions of gallons of liquid also return to the surface.

The United States is the first country in the world where fracking became popular and was adopted on a large scale. The technology was first theoretically proposed in the 1950s, and perfected in the 60s. after large amounts of experiments and field work, it was established as a safe way to obtain oil. Nowadays, the research is still ongoing in the field, exploring the possibility to drill deeper into the ground and extract oil from 5000 meters below ground. The popularity of fracking is primarily because of the high prices of imported fossil fuels that pushed the industry to explore new options domestically. In the years of 2000, there were around 276000 natural gas wells in the country, which double in number by 2010. Study has shown that over 15 million Americans have lived within a mile of a fracking site since 2000 (Davis & Fisk 2014, pp. 13). The US government and the energy industry in having high expectations of the oil and gas extraction from the shales, due to the rich resources found in the country. In the states of Colorado, Utah and Wyoming, the amount of oil locked within the shale layers is in billions of buckets. Due to its efficiency, fracking has become the most important technology applied in the energy sector of the United States. the enormous amounts of oil and natural gas that were not available originally became accessible through fracking. In addition, for many of the old wells, fracking is also able to reuse them and uncover the huge potential deeper underground(Zhang & Yang 2015, pp. 877). In the foreseeable future, over 90% of the oil and natural gas production in the United States would involve fracking. Thanks to fracking, United States has become the top oil and gas producer. By 2040, gas production in the US is expected to increase by over 50% with fracking related technologies prompting the development.

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Despite the successful records and promising future, fracking is negatively perceived by the public in general. According to a study conducted by (Holloway & Rudd 2013, pp.72), over 60% of media perceive fracking negatively due to the environmental concerns, while only less than 20% are completely supportive of it. There has not been a single law passed that regulates fracking in the United States. most of the debates initiated over the years failed to make an impact due to the lobbying of the oil and gas companies. As early as 2014, the US government had made a series of assessments regarding the impact of fracking, reaching the conclusion that the technology was “safe” (Darrah et al. 2014, pp.14077). However, the influence of fracking has been visible, with the most obvious case being the drinking water that can be lit due to the mixture with flammable gas cause by fracking. Indeed, the environmental implications of fracking should not be underestimated. In this report, the influence of fracking on the hydrosphere will be examined from different aspects of the technology, to foster a deeper understanding of how this technology is impacting and polluting the water cycles, as well as what can be done to stop the environmental damages.

2. IMPACTS OF FRACKING ON THE HYDROSPHERE

2.1 The Overall Water Cycle

Surface water plays a significant part in the regulation of the climate and the ecosystem. The water content in the atmosphere can block over 60% of solar radiation, and protect the earth from cooling down too much. Due to the high heat capacity of water, surface water bodies absorb heat in the summers so that the temperature would not rise too high, and release heat so that the winters are not too cold, either. Precipitation is cause by the vaporization of surface water, which seeps into the ground to form the underground water, which then flows into rivers, lakes and springs to form the water cycle (Schwartz 2013, pp.479). However, such a cycle only involves the upper portions of the underground water, while water from the deeper layers are not part of the cycle since it is too deep and isolated by the rock layers from the upper parts. The deeper underground water creates a supporting effect for the shallow underground water, without which the water level will drop in the surface water. With fracking, large amounts of fresh water are taken from the surface water system and added to the deeper levels underground, causing drastic declines in the surface water levels.

Fracking requires water, in huge amounts. To transfer the chemicals and sands and fracture the shale, water is the most convenient and safest way for fracking. Although there have been attempts in the development of fracking that does not require so much water, most fracking sites in the US still use water as the major carrier of grains into the rock layers (Moss 2013). On average, over 30 thousand fracking wells are built in the US annually, with each requiring two to five million gallons of fresh water(Zhang & Yang 2015, pp. 880). The figure can be even larger, since one well can be used multiple times, which also requires times of the water amount. Such a problem should not be overlooked in the world where fresh water resources are becoming increasingly valuable. to save cost of transportation, the water used for fracking is usually taken from nearby water bodies around the site, which can pose a serious water shortage problem for states such as Texas and Colorado.

The underground water on earth itself forms a huge system, accounting for almost one percent of the total amount of water on earth. The major sources of underground water are precipitation and surface seepage. The underground water also become sources for rivers, lakes and swamps. It is one of the most important water bodies on earth since it is closely related to the human society. Although running right below the surface water system, the underground water system is largely isolated, hidden in the rock layers that are much more complex than surface water. In many regions, the vertical distribution of underground water system can have a range of thousands of meters (Brandon 1986, pp. 14). The drilling work done by fracking will diminish the boundary between surface water and underground water, increasing the rate of seepage in areas around the drilling sites. As a result, water shortage is more like to appear, since a substantial amount of fresh water in the surface cycle is absorbed by the rock layers, taking the place of oil and gas in it.

2.2 Toxic Chemical Contaminations

There are multiple sources of contamination that occur in the fracking process. A fraction of the water mixture that is injected into the wells flow back. However, they are not the same after flowing through the underground rock layers. In the shale layers, formation water exists, which is highly saturated with salt and radioactive gas. These are sources of contamination, including radioactive material, heavy metals and other toxic chemicals. These chemicals are originally in an isolated environment underground, but the drilling and water injection bring these up to the surface, creating risks of pollution and contamination (Norris et al. 2016, pp. 338). It is the common practice in the fracking industry to direct the wastewater into pits near the wells. The wastewater is then transported to a treatment factory to be treated. However, there are many links in the water transportation that may go wrong. For example, many of the storage pits used are not constructed with seepage prevention standards, which may cause the chemicals to be released into the ground and pollution the nearby water bodies. The large amount of flowback water to be treated is also beyond the capacity of local treatment factories, so that not all the waste water is properly treated. these chemicals that enter the hydrosphere will cause further problems to the water quality and the health of the residents. In addition to storage pits and treatment plants, the tubes used in the fracking wells are not reliable either (Live Magazine 2012, pp.9). The cement tube is likely to fracture and even fail under immense pressure. The chemicals and toxins in the wastewater will then enter and pollute the groundwater system. Loss of pressure in the wells during fracking will cause similar problems, with the fracking fluid running freely out of the wells and seeping into the underground water.

In addition to the natural source of contamination, the chemical additives in the water injected is also problematic. The addition of these chemicals is necessary since they protect the tubes from erosion and indirectly protect the environment by preventing leakage and seepage. However, these chemicals themselves are sources of contamination. In the past, no information of the names of the chemicals was required by the government, as many companies listed these information as trade secret. Even when there are requirements by the local government, the information provided by the companies may not be accurate. Consequently, there isn’t a comprehensive list of what chemicals are used in fracking, not to mention the environmental impact assessment of it. With increasing pressure from the public and the government, some companies began to disclose the names of the chemicals used. Many of the chemicals used, such as Benzene, Toluene and 2-butoxyethanol, are found to be toxic, leading to cancer and other health problems (Tollefson 2013, pp. 146). Although many companies claim that due to the low concentration of these chemicals, the fracking fluid does not pose any actual threat to public health, there is no way for one to predict how the chemicals will seep into the local hydrosphere and poison the water bodies without being noticed. It is even proved that some of the chemicals will lead to cancer even with exposure to a minimal amount of it. Moreover, the frack fluid is consumed in billions of gallons, which means even a very low concentration would mean the use of millions of gallons of chemicals.These harmful contents, together with the toxins brought from the shale deep underground, make the cost of treatment for the wastewater extremely expensive. However, the effort made is far from enough to keep the toxins from entering the environment and the hydrosphere.

2.3 The “Flammable Water” Problem

The gases that used to be stored in the shale layers have found their way to the shallow underground water system. As a result, the tap water of many American households contains bubbles of methane, which is the major component of shale gas. Many Americans are even able to light their tap water on fire due to the large concentration of methane. There are videos all over the internet recording the phenomenon, which became the major reason for the objections against fracking. It is obvious that flammable water in the US is caused by fracking, since there is no other geological activity, except for earthquakes, that can release so much methane from the rock layers and let it seep into the water system. One of the reasons of the leakage of methane is also originated from the failing of the well tubes. When the casing of the tubes fail, both methane and fluid can escape from the tube into the surface water system. As a result, the local water system becomes filled with methane, leading the water to be undrinkable. It is also possible for gas to travel from the shale layer up to the water table, since it is smaller in density. Such a process is called gas migration. With the shale layers fractured near the wells, it is more likely for the gas to be released from the rocks and travel up, with or without the tubes(Lustgarten 2009).

There have been numerous cases of gas contamination observed and reported. In a study of 60 drilling locations in New York and Pennsylvania, evidence of methane contamination was found in the local households. It has been found that the nearer these household were to the fracking wells, the more likely that their tap water is contaminated with methane.In a study published in 2013 (Jackson 2013, pp.11250), 141 water wells from Pennsylvaniawere investigated. The methane levels in the wells closer to fracking sites were found to be six times higher than those that were further away from the sites. The Ethane levels (another natural gas component commonly found in shale layers) were 23 times higher for the wells near the fracking sites. The current federal standard of the methane level in drinking water is under 28 mg/L. the study found 12 households where the methane level in tap water exceeded this level. Among these households, 11 were using wells that were close to fracking sites. Although there are also natural reasons that causes methane leakage, the correlation between fracking and methane leaking is also certain (Lustgarten 2009). the oil and natural gas companies are responsible for making more effort in reducing the methane leakage, instead of denying the correlation.

3. SOLUTIONS

Although fracking technology has gone through improvements over the years, it still has substantial influences on the hydrosphere as discussed above. Therefore, more modifications should be done on the technique itself. For example, the development of fracking without water is important. By replacing water with gas such as carbon dioxide, the water resources will be saved for better uses and a reduction of the drought problems will be possible (Moss 2013). Water is only one way of fracturing, but should not be considered the only way due to the increasingly scarce water resources. Development of waste water treatment is also important to minimize the pollution caused by fracking (Halliburton 2011, pp. 89). In the process of fracking, about 20% of the water used will return to the ground surface. Improvement storage plans for the returned water should be made. In addition, investments in the water treatment business can be made, as it is a huge market concerned the scale of the drilling business and the amount of waste water generated. There have been some ideas of treatment developed for the industry, such as the CleanWave treatment system that deals with waste water directly on site with bubbles and ions. Through proper treatment, the waste water can be reused and save cost for the oil companies as well.

The final technological improvement in fracking should be made in the construction of more durable tubes that can effectively prevent seepage without being eroded. The amount of methane escape is not only influencing the hydrosphere, but also the atmosphere, which can contribute to global warming. New regulations should be made to define clear standards of methane emissions on drilling sites. A monitoring system with infrared cameras can be set on site. Improvements in the pipes will also be required to reduce the incidence of failure. The reduction in leaks will also be beneficial for the companies, since it means a reduction in the loss of their product. In addition to the technical aspects, it is also important for government to come up with stricter policies and better management models so that all actions on the drilling sites are monitored and conforms to the environmental standards. There have also been alternatives to fracking developed in the energy industry. As mentioned above, a water-free fracking system is effective in reducing the environmental footprint of fracking. The need for draining contaminated water is significantly reduced with the use of gas.

4. CONCLUSIONS

In the northeast regions of the United States, there are rich sources of natural gas production, creating tens of thousands of jobs and billions of incomes for the local governments. Therefore, natural gas will continue to play an important role in the future energy source of the United States. The benefits of natural gas are even larger for the US in the longer term. Compared to tradition fuels, natural gas is the most environmentally friendly fuel with the lowest carbon dioxide emissions. However, the environmental implication of drilling practices in the United States is alarming. Due to the close relationship between humans and the hydrosphere, it is important to minimize the influence of fracking on it. As a technology that has only decades of history, there is still room of improvement for fracking. The impact of fracking on the hydrosphere is due to the large amounts of water consumption, chemical seepage and methane leakage. Consequently, not only the water quality of the region is affect, the health of the residents is also put at risk. Due to the large scale of application of fracking in the US, it is the responsibility of both the government and the gas companies to come up with plans of improvements for the technology, and possible alternatives for it.

REFERENCES

Brandon, T.W. & Institution of Water Engineers and Scientists 1986, Groundwater: occurrence, development, and protection, Institution of Water Engineers and Scientists, London, England.

Darrah, T.H., Vengosh, A., Jackson, R.B., Warner, N.R. &Poreda, R.J. 2014, "Noble gases identify the mechanisms of fugitive gas contamination in drinking-water wells overlying the Marcellus and Barnett Shales", Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, vol. 111, no. 39, pp. 14076-14081.

Davis, C. & Fisk, J.M. 2014, "Energy Abundance or Environmental Worries? Analyzing Public Support for Fracking in the United States", Review of Policy Research, vol. 31, no. 1, pp. 1-16.

"Halliburton's CleanWave™ Water Treatment Technology Takes Spotlight Award at Offshore Technology Conference", 2011, Energy Weekly News, pp. 89.

Hardy, P., Tyner, W., Scotchman, I., Hester, R.E., Harrison, R.M., Broderick, J., Ward, R. & Jiang, S. 2014, Fracking, 1st ED, Royal Society of Chemistry, Cambridge.

Holloway, M.D. & Rudd, O. 2013, Fracking: the operations and environmental consequences of hydraulic fracturing, John Wiley & Sons, Inc, Hoboken, NJ.

Jackson, R.B., Vengosh, A., Darrah, T.H., Warner, N.R., Down, A., Poreda, R.J., Osborn, S.G., Zhao, K. & Karr, J.D. 2013, "Increased stray gas abundance in a subset of drinking water wells near Marcellus shale gas extraction", Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, vol. 110, no. 28, pp. 11250-11255.

Live Magazine. 2012. “Fracking: Economic Boom or Environmental Bust?” pp.5-121. Retrieved from: https://climatejusticetaranaki.files.wordpress.com/2011/04/live-winter12-pg4-121.pdf

Lustgarten, A. 2009. “Does Natural Gas Drilling Make Water Burn? Drilling for natural gas has caused explosions, polluted aquifers and even burning water” Scientific America, April 27, 2009.

Lustgarten, A. 2009. “Officials in Three States Pin Water Woes on Gas Drilling” ProPublica, April 26, 2009. Retrieved from: https://www.propublica.org/article/officials-in-three-states-pin-water-woes-on-gas-drilling-426.

Moss, D., 2013"Dear EarthTalk: I hear there's a greener form of fracking for natural gas and oil that uses carbon dioxide instead of water to access underground reserves. Is this really better for the environment?". Retrieved from: http://smdp.com/earth-talk-a-new-type-of-fracking/129681

Norris, J.Q., Turcotte, D.L., Moores, E.M., Brodsky, E.E. & Rundle, J.B. 2016, "Fracking in Tight Shales: What Is It, What Does It Accomplish, and What Are Its Consequences?", Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences, vol. 44, no. 1, pp. 321-351.

Schwartz, F.W. 2013, "Folk Beliefs and Fracking", Groundwater, vol. 51, no. 4, pp. 479-479.

Tollefson, J. 2013, "Secrets of fracking fluids pave way for cleaner recipe: disclosure of chemicals used in hydraulic fracturing will empower green chemistry", Nature, vol. 501, no. 7466, pp. 146.

Zhang, D. & Yang, T. 2015, "Environmental impacts of hydraulic fracturing in shale gas development in the United States", Petroleum Exploration and Development, vol. 42, no. 6, pp. 876-883.

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Essay代写：Russian frontier ethnic policy in the 19th century

下面为大家整理一篇优秀的essay代写范文- Russian frontier ethnic policy in the 19th century，供大家参考学习，这篇论文讨论了19世纪俄罗斯边疆的民族政策。19世纪的俄罗斯帝国，治下民族众多。而边疆民族问题的出现，无疑威胁着俄罗斯国家的稳定与安全，这些问题引起了俄罗斯社会的关注和帝国政府的担忧。帝俄政府认为，俄罗斯化政策是解决所有这些边疆民族问题的重要方式。帝俄政府的政策目的在于使非俄罗斯民族边疆地区在行政管理和社会文化方面与俄罗斯帝国融为一体，使俄罗斯帝国成为“统一而不可分割”的俄罗斯现代民族国家。

Frontier ethnic problems has important status in the national domestic policy, the history of the Russian empire in this experience is very rich, the Russian empire period in its present ethnic, religious and cultural characteristics of coexistence of diversity on the investigation to the Russian empire frontier ethnic problems can give us thinking reference for dealing with ethnic problems today.

The Russian empire of the 19th century, under the rule of many peoples. Colonial expansion not only expanded the boundaries of the Russian empire, but also brought the political, cultural, religious and traditional non-russian peoples under the rule of the Russian empire. At this point, the Russian empire gave special meaning to the idea of national unity. Krakow, in the 1860 s, famous Russian commentator carter report on Moscow gazette: "we want to remain completely hope, along with our country's political development, Russia will firmly establish the integrity of their own country, the unity of the deep and strong feeling, for the unification, the russians all lands of Russia to flow the last drop of blood." He believes that Russia must be a unified and powerful country. Since then, the establishment of a "unified and indivisible" Russia has been the main direction of the Russian empire's internal policy since the mid-19th century.

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The external expansion of the Russian empire not only cause the competition between overseas empire, also gave birth to the enemies of his nationalism, the expansion of the empire and nationalism are the contradiction between the Russian empire after the middle of the 19th century facing huge difficulties. , due to the impact of nationalist sentiment in the 19th century, almost all the nation's national movement rising Russian empire changed the empire, but also put forward new problems for the regime, the frontier ethnic problems, it including Poland, the Baltic sea, Muslim problems, etc.

Poland is a country with the old system of traditional nation, has its own elite nobleman, prosperity of culture and literary language, but all of this in between 1793 and 1793 were destroyed. As an elite aristocrat of the polish national consciousness, the polish national tradition has been restored as a dream. As a result, poles played a "vanguard" role in the national movement of the Russian empire.

The uprising of 1831 and 1863 shook the entire Russian empire, challenging not only the imperial government and Russian society, but also other non-russian peoples. It was the polish national uprising that woke up the imperial regime. It not only showed the disloyalty of some of the imperial residents, but also was a provocation to the stability and unity of the empire. Russian nationalists think russians and poles are always can't each other is the most thorough enemy, all the poles of rebellion should be severely punished, because they are "betrayal" of the people. The polish problem arose. The polish problem was not only a problem for Poland itself, but also a representative of all "xenophobic separatism".

Poland's example prompted the imperial government to focus on the development of other foreign nations. In the 19th century 70 s ~ 80 s, the Baltic sea region is starting to get the attention of Russian society, the privilege of the Baltic baron in the border region and the Germanic cultural dominance in the border region, make its influence in the Baltic sea area is becoming more and more weak, German unification and strengthened the trend. The political theorists of the empire began to criticize the special regimes of the Baltic sea, which threatened the unification of the empire. The essence of the Baltic problem lies in the constant germanisation of the Baltic sea, and the alienation of the Baltic sea from the Russian empire.

Put forward in the 1860 s most of the western frontier minority problems mainly involve empire residents, but in the end the separatist ghost appeared in eastern empire, the resulting Muslim problem. The question put forward by kazan missionaries, they was baptized on a large number of tatar turned to Islam deeply worried, Islam is not only affected by orthodox missionaries "anti-muslim" activity, but also the ability to spread to the Muslim nation. Missionaries believed that the influence of Islam to a Muslim nation is the one of the dominant position of the Russian culture, the threat of Muslim without assimilation is unreliable subjects, their threat to Russia's national unity and security, unique Muslim culture in itself is a threat to the existence of the Russian state, it is not only a religious issue but also a political problem.

In short, the emergence of ethnic issues in the border area threatens the stability and security of the Russian state, which has aroused the concern of Russian society and the concerns of the imperial government. By the end of the 19th century, there were Finnish problems, jewish problems, and Ukraine. For the imperial regime, the emergence of ethnic issues in border areas made the people who had this problem become extremely dangerous in the eyes of the government. Only by solving these problems can the "unity" and stability of the Russian empire be guaranteed. Only by solving these problems can the effectiveness of the "unified and indivisible" national strategy be guaranteed.

Russian empire in the face of frontier ethnic problems, faced with two choices, or allow the Russian nationality retain their identity, or assimilate them, if ethnic minorities were not expelled or assimilation, but maintain their own identity, once their national consciousness awakening, will become a serious threat to the empire. Therefore, of the Russian national politics, economy, culture, language and so on comprehensive integration and assimilation, cultivate peoples in the Russian national identity, is the imperial government to safeguard the unity of the empire and the stability of the inevitable choice.

Although different border areas will show different characteristics, the Russian government always believes that russification policy is an important way to solve all these ethnic issues. Since the 1860 s, tsarist Russia government policies began to deviate from the past to maintain the status quo, with the loyalty of the traditional patterns of the Russian nobility cooperation to administrative integration and the direction of Russia's change in language and culture. The key to the russification policy lies in the implementation of Russian administrative institutions, the promotion of Russian language culture and the implementation of the Russian education method. Tsarist Russia government policy goal is to make the Russian ethnic border areas in the administrative management and the social culture and the Russian empire together, make the Russian empire "unified and indivisible" Russian modern nation-state.

However, according to the population survey in 1897, there are more than 100 languages in the Russian empire, including Christianity, Islam, Judaism, Buddhism and polytheism. Russian nationality as the main body of the national accounts for only 44% of the population, at that time, the Ukrainian accounts for 18% of the proportion of the population, 7% poles, belarus by 5%, and jewish 4%, Finland, Estonia and Latvia accounted for 5%, central Asia, Caucasus and the urals - volga region accounts for roughly 12% of the population of muslims. In the case of ukrainians and belarusians counted as "ethnic russians", the "Russian nation" constituted the majority of the population. It can be seen that the Russian empire at the end of the 19th century still showed the diversity of language, religion and nationality, and the Russian government did not successfully assimilate the majority of non-russian people.

Under the dual attack of the national movement and the revolutionary movement, the Russian empire went to collapse, and the goal of building a "unified and indivisible" Russian state was not realized. The reasons for the failure of the "unified and indivisible" Russian state are more complex, and the analysis of the causes of failure is difficult to cover all aspects, but at least the following factors need to be considered:

Before the collapse of the empire, the Russian empire had always followed the traditional imperial rule and hierarchy, while ethnic and religious factors played a minor role. Follow the principle of the feudal rank the assimilation to the Russian national appeal is not enough, because only become aristocratic privileges, to the end of the 19th century, most russians are due to poor economic, cultural level is low, made up of people with no political rights.

The social foundation of the Russian empire falls far behind the industrialized countries of Western Europe, and the empire lacks very important assimilation conditions. Such as universal obligation education, high industrialization, urbanization and democratization. Although the reforms of the 1960s and 1970s contributed to the modernisation of the Russian state to a certain extent, these reforms did not affect the areas inhabited by all non-russian residents. Coupled with the limitations of the reform itself, the process of assimilation has been greatly reduced.

The Russian government's russification policy encountered strong resistance from non-russian people in the implementation of certain non-russian ethnic groups. Imperial government believes that as long as with the help of a brutal crackdown means and measures to promote more forced assimilation, this opposition movement will be suppressed, but the results backfire, cruel punishment instead more aggravated contradictions conflict upgrade, so, national movement together with revolutionary movement to move the foundation of the empire.

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