Paragraph部分怎么写

写不好英文论文是一个困扰了众多中国留学生的问题，至于原因，有很多，今天我们就给大家分析其中一种写不好英文论文的原因，那就是段落没写好。Paragraph是英文论文写作的基础，一些该有的元素必须要有，下面就给大家详细讲解一下。

段落：在英文中我们俗称为paragraph，而一篇英文文章通常含有五个paragraphs。一个paragraph通常含有：

1.topic主旨-->;发展成主旨句子topic sentence

2.main idea(支持主旨的主要论点):

3.supporting sentences or supporting details(支持主要论点的句子，通常为事实举例句)

4.conclusion(总结前面所提到的事情或是主旨再陈述)

通常组织一个英文段落时需要这几项元素，而从上至下都是由广泛至细部(例子：旅行-->钥匙-->球馆-->西雅图-->TI等等...)。这就是写一个好的英文文章需要的逻辑，想要说一口好英文也正是需要这样的思考方式。

1、假如我今天谈论到三个重要的事，那我的旨就绝对是三个重要的事啊Three important things。再来就是要发展成一个主旨句子，那就要看你要如何发展，对我来说重要的事有三个there are three things that are very important to me。到这里你就完成了一个主旨句子，接下来就是开始说明哪三件事对你重要喽。

需注意以下：

主旨句子通常都是作者的观点句子，而事实句往往都是用来prove观点句子的例子句。那要怎么分辨观点句跟事实句呢？简单，我是牛跟牛吃草你觉得哪个是事实(如果你要说第一个是事实我也是醉了)？当然是牛吃草喽！那观点句就是我是牛，为什么？就好比今天你跟人家说：『欸欸我是牛。』人家一定问你为什么啊！因为这个就纯属是你自己的观点所以你要陈述例子来支持你为什么是牛！

2、完成了主旨句子接下来就是主要论点main idea，你觉得对你来说重要的事有什么？可能家人啊！my family is important，当你想到这个时候，你就已经完成了main idea了。而一个段落需要三至四个main ideas(通常三就刚刚好了，两个有点过少，四个有点硬塞)。

再来呢？我们说中文在说话的时候，最常讲的是不是“然后”？然后啊这然后啊那的。我们在英文中称作transitions用于转换语调、承接已经句点的句子、连结意思各不相同的ideas。而我们英文最常见的当然就是First, second and third(第一怎样。第二怎样。第三怎样)；然后把他们放在每个main ideas前加逗点Firstly, my family is important. Secondly,....Thirdly,....这样呢就完成了Main ideas喽！

3、再来就是supporting sentences喽！这其实非常简单。我们在写国内论文的时候是不是常常会举例吗？那个在英文来说for example就可以拿来当supporting sentence了。简单来说它可以诉说更多的细节来补充main idea：

for example, they'll take care of me when I'm sick.这样就结束了supporting sentence了。

4、最后就是conclusion喽！conclusion结论其实就是主旨句子的再论说。那一样我们需要个transition。Above all, all in all, In conclusion都是最典型的结尾开头片语在中文中就有点类似总之。那再论说呢？怎么办？

重新陈述topic有两种方法。

第一，把段落中你所举的main ideas全部重新写一次all in all, my family,...and...are very important to me.

第二，重新造新的句子但是一样要有等同于topic sentence的意思。In conclusion, these are the three things that I cherish.这是我所珍惜的三件事。

简单说，是不是对你来说重要所以才珍惜。所以在重新造句是就可以把形容词改成相同意思的其他单字或是句型重新做编排让它跟主旨句子不一样但是却有同样意思。

以上就是关于Paragraph的写作讲解，现在大家都明白了吧，写好Paragraph的关键就在于对细节的把握，建议同学们还是多去练习一下。

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Paper代写：External shocks to the international economy

下面为大家整理一篇优秀的paper代写范文- External shocks to the international economy，供大家参考学习，这篇论文讨论了国际经济外部冲击。国际经济外部冲击，指的是世界经济发生变化时对一国的经济贸易带来不利的影响，包括出口需求量下降、国际金融市场不景气、利率大幅度上升等等。世界经济形势变化具有不可控性，一个国家是难以左右其变化的，当世界经济发展不利带来外部冲击时，国内的经济结构、汇率制度、经济动力都会受到冲击。

As the trend of international economic integration continues to expand, China continues to strengthen domestic institutional reform, adjust the domestic industrial structure, and promote the process of economic globalization, so that China's economy can better adapt to the rules of the global market, give full play to its advantages, and achieve better results in the global economic environment. The more economic globalization develops, the more China's economy is affected by the international economy. In particular, the financial crisis in the international economy in recent years has impacted the domestic economic development.

External shock means that when the world economy changes, it will bring adverse effects on the economy and trade of a country, including the decline in export demand, the depression in international financial market, the sharp rise in interest rates and so on. World economic situation changes have not controllable, about a country is difficult to change, when the world economy development brings adverse external shocks, the domestic economic structure, exchange rate system, economic power will be hit, such as the subprime crisis happened in 2008, many countries severely affected economy, this is the influence of external shocks.

China's economy vulnerable to international economic impact, its reason is various, first look back the economic development of our country after reform and opening up, can be found that China's economic dependence on external demand, foreign capital and the external market, this is also our country to develop the cause of the world's exports, continuous double surplus led to the economic development of China, but also exposed the problem; Secondly, the imbalance of China's external economy leads to the periodical imbalance of China's internal economy. China's processing export is relatively significant, but the export benefits cannot reach the expected effect. External trade imbalances that domestic market high savings rate, consumption rate is low, make domestic demand to reduce domestic economy, economic development, domestic overcapacity, and excess productivity can only rely on the international market digest, past is relying on the international market in our country for a long time, when the changes occurred in the international market, our country economy has been hit.

The international economic external shock in 1989 was the first external shock since China's reform and opening up. The external shock was not caused by the international financial crisis, but the measures taken by western countries to see the rapid development of China's economy and use the international economy to interfere in China's internal affairs and hit China's economic development.

The second international economic external shocks occurred in 1997, the cause of the financial crisis happened in Thailand, cause the instability of international finance and trade, further into the Asian financial crisis, the affected mainly by Asian countries, the United States, Germany, Europe and the United States developed countries is not affected, is exporter in China, the Asian financial crisis broke out, influenced China's export trade channels, makes our country's exports, a big drop in domestic excess capacity, resulting in economic stagnation.

After the second external shock, China's economy has accelerated its development. Measures such as optimizing the economic policy system, improving the market economy system, giving full play to the function of resource allocation have accelerated the development of the domestic economy, and preparations have been made for China's accession to the WTO. After joining WTO, China has started a transitional period of three years. The adjustment of policies and regulations makes China's economy more adaptable to the development of international economy. Until 2008, when the financial crisis in the United States, led to many areas such as Europe, Asia economic fluctuations, the international economy suffered serious damage, falling economic growth, to say the U.S. financial crisis triggered a global financial crisis directly, this time is different from the 1997 Asia financial crisis, this is global, so our country's economy is also influenced by a lot, because our country has joined the WTO, China's economy has been integrated into the world economy, will inevitably be affected.

After such a severe blow in 2008, the state council adjusted the economic structure and industrial structure in our country, the development emphasis on high and new technology industries, began to advocate the public entrepreneurship, innovation, in the economic reform, our country suffered the pain of the "three to one drop step", in order to better prospects for development, constantly deepening reform. In 2018, China's relations with the United States were once frozen. Trump launched a trade war, increased import tariffs on Chinese products, and repeatedly proposed to increase tariffs on Chinese exports. Once again, our economy was hit. This is an external impact on the international economy unilaterally generated by the United States. The purpose of the United States is to curb the economic development of China and protect the status of the United States as the world's no. Although the trade friction between China and the United States has been constantly adjusted and resolved, the United States has also stopped imposing new tariffs. However, it remains to be seen what will happen in the future.

After the reform and development, foreign trade of our country economy continues to increase, along with the rapid economic growth at the same time, external dependence is also gradually increase, four international economic external shocks are caused in China's export trade, foreign investment, relying on domestic export-oriented businesses have closed down, the domestic unemployment once more, the domestic market and overseas assets have been huge impact, economic nervous, once inflation rising prices, national consumption ability, lack of economic power.

China's oil supply and demand imbalance, domestic production of oil completely unable to meet domestic demand, since the early stage of reform and development, China is the world's major energy importer, especially in the era of heavy industry, energy consumption, China's oil imports have exceeded 50%. The outbreak of the international financial crisis, led to the international oil prices skyrocketed, and then the domestic oil prices all the way soaring, the majority of the car industry has been affected by the whining complain, the automobile industry has also been affected, sales have dropped significantly. Several external shocks have made the public pay more attention to the safety supply of oil. With the increase of China's annual oil demand and external dependence, how to improve this situation and reduce the impact of the international economy by adjusting the industrial structure and economic system?

Our country is populous, mainly on agricultural production in China in the past, with the development of economy, industrial structure adjustment, declining share of the first industry in our country, the tertiary industry accounted for, our country has been unable to meet the domestic demand, domestic production of food needs a large number of imports, in 2008 the global food prices continue to rise, quietly and to the food crisis, food security problem is a national strategic issue, the international economic external shocks has been affecting the price of grain of our country.

Exchange rate is a double-edged sword, the two major ways of exchange rate performance are the depreciation of the dollar and the appreciation of the RMB. The us dollar, as the international standard currency, affects the international exchange rate all the time and brings shock to the world economy. In recent years, the continuous appreciation of RMB will have a great impact on China's economy. Firstly, the continuous appreciation of RMB will lead to the emergence of "peso effect". Secondly, the appreciation of RMB will impact China's export industry and increase the pressure of inflation.

External shocks in the international economy has, uncertainty and risk in our country has experienced four international economic external shocks, lead to the economic slowdown in China, every time a domestic industry is affected, but we can always learn from, after each experience through constantly adjust the pattern of economic and industrial structure, raise their ability of resistance to provide better respond to environmental impact for the future.

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Compare & Contrast Essay题目

Compare & Contrast Essay，就是比较和对比类的Essay，要想写好这一类的Essay，那么大家除了要在文中好好的对比分析之外，选择题目也是非常重要的。下面就给大家总结一下Compare & Contrast Essay常见的Topics，大家可以参考一下。

Compare and contrast essay正如它的名字。是一篇比较和对比两个或更多主题的essay.在compare and contrast essay中，作者可以分辨the similarities (compare) 和 the differences (contrast).

但是，除了强调这些内容，以thesis statement的形式提供主要思想也将是更好的选择。

例如，如果您的essay是关于同一部小说改编的两部电影，那么您的thesis可能会写“one film adaptation is better than the other film adaptation”.

提交thesis后，您可以继续讨论使其中一部电影更好的点，两部电影的共同点以及它们的不同之处。

虽然撰写compare and contrast essay似乎很容易，但是选择topic有时可能很困难。 请记住，并非所有subjects都可以配对。

有些subjects可能过于相似，以至于没有任何东西可以区分两者。另一方面，某些subjects可能相差太大，以致于没有任何共同点。

在每种情况下，都没有必要撰写有关该subjects的文章。您还必须考虑您撰写essay的研究领域，论文的长度和academic level.

为了让您更轻松，我们列出了50个compare and contrast essay topics. 这些在下面分别按照类别列出。

Medicine, Science, and Technology

The similarities and differences between scientific medicine and alternative medicine.

Medicine now and then: Modern medicine versus medieval medicine.

Psychiatry and psychology: What are the similarities and differences?

What are the advantages and disadvantages of nuclear power and solar power?

How are mammals and reptiles the same? How are they different?

Describe the health benefits and adverse effects of coffee and tea.

Bacteria and viruses: What’s the difference?

The Arctic and Antarctica: Are they really that the same?

Compare and contrast iOS and Android in terms of functionality and ease of use.

Pop Culture

Compare and contrast the universe of the Game of Thrones series and the Marvel Cinematic Universe.

Mainstream cinema and art house cinema: How are they the same and how do they differ?

Compare and contrast an animated film based on a fairy tale with its traditional source material. How did a modern take on an old fairy tale change the story?

Two film adaptations of a novel: In what ways are they the same? In what ways do they differ?

Aurora from Sleeping Beauty and Elsa from Frozen: In what ways do they adhere to and depart from the traditional depictions of the princess character?

History, Politics, and Social Studies

The similarities and differences in the government systems and society of ancient China and ancient Rome.

Democracy versus monarchy.

Socialism and communism: How are they similar? How are they different?

Capitalism versus communism.

In what ways are robots better than humans at performing jobs? In what ways are humans better than robots?

What were the advantages of the North during the Civil War? How about the South?

Describe Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, and Jean Jacques-Rousseau individual views of the social contract.

Compare and contrast the Spanish Empire and the British Empire in terms of their effect on their former colonies.

World War I and World War II: What were the reasons behind both conflicts?

What is the difference between civil law and criminal law?

Compare and contrast the wedding beliefs, traditions, and practices of two different cultures.

Art and Music

Compare and contrast modern music and classical music.

The similarities and differences between film and theater.

Operas and musicals: What’s the difference?

Compare and contrast the treatment of the human body in the art of the Middle Ages and Renaissance art.

Compare and contrast two architectural styles: Renaissance and Baroque.

Literature

Poetry versus prose.

Compare and contrast two characters from a novel.

In what ways did Huckleberry Finn change throughout the course of the novel? In what ways did he remain the same?

Analyze the themes of two poems.

Compare and contrast two novels or two short stories from the late 19th century with regard to their treatment of women.

Education

Which is better: Getting home-schooled or attending a regular school?

What are the benefits and disadvantages of making uniforms mandatory? How do these compare to not making uniforms mandatory?

Creationist doctrines versus scientific explanations of the universe’s origins.

How do the effects of comprehensive sex education and abstinence-only sex education differ?

Religion

Compare and contrast the central doctrines of the three major Abrahamic religions: Judaism, Christianity, and Islam.

Monotheism versus polytheism.

Compare and contrast the nature of the gods in Greek mythology and Egyptian mythology.

Compare and contrast two creation myths from two different civilizations.

Miscellaneous Topics

Taking care of pets: dogs versus cats.

Compare and contrast two countries famous for their tourism.

Superman versus Gohan: Who is the more interesting superhero?

Compare and contrast two gaming consoles.

Compare and contrast two famous individuals.

Compare and contrast two martial arts.

What are the advantages and disadvantages of taking public transportation and driving to work?

以上就是关于Compare & Contrast Essay常用的Topics，如果大家实在不知道该写什么的话，可以从上面选一个。当然，选择主题时，请务必考虑其他因素。

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Paper代写：The impact of liberalization of international trade in services on developing countries

本篇paper代写- The impact of liberalization of international trade in services on developing countries讨论了国际服务贸易自由化对发展中国家的影响。在经济全球化的带动下，国际贸易自由化也在加速推进，国际服务贸易自由化从多个角度对发展中国家产生了影响，但由于发展中国家在高新技术领域发展缓慢，而目前服务逐渐转向信息化服务，这不免给发展中国家带来了很大的挑战。因此，发展中国家应积极进行相关调整，合理地利用本国优势资源，顺应国际服务贸易自由化的趋势，使本国的经济迈上新的台阶。本篇paper代写由51due代写平台整理，供大家参考阅读。

Economic globalization makes the international service trade liberalization has become the irreversible trend, but currently on the international service trade liberalization is mainly dominated by the developed capitalist countries one hand, this for developing countries, although it is a rare opportunity for development, but is always in a passive state, at the same time, also brought huge influence to developing countries. The liberalization of international service trade has the following characteristics. First, it covers a wide range of fields. The liberalization of trade in services is not limited to the economic field, but also extends to education and other aspects. Second, liberalization of trade in services is highly exploitable; Third, the service trade liberalization in the process of development, there are a lot of uncertain conditions, so it is difficult to achieve a high degree of unity, therefore, developing countries when considering promote the development of service trade liberalization, the need to conduct a comprehensive consideration, not only to see the opportunities brought by this process can also see the possibility of trouble; Fourth, generally speaking, the liberalization of international service trade has brought more adverse effects to developing countries. Although it can help developing countries to develop their own service industry and improve their international competitiveness to some extent, it will inevitably threaten the stability and security of the domestic economy of developing countries.

With the continuous improvement of international service trade liberalization, developing countries can greatly improve their economic efficiency. The main reasons are as follows: First, with the opening of the economic market, a large number of foreign enterprises can enter the domestic market and provide more abundant services for the domestic market. At the same time, domestic enterprises have more choices to choose cheaper services, which indirectly improves the economic efficiency of enterprises. Secondly, for some productive services, domestic environment cannot be well realized and satisfied at present, and they need to rely on foreign imports. However, liberalization of international service trade can effectively solve this problem. Third, with a large number of foreign enterprises entering the domestic market, the excellent competitiveness of foreign enterprises will inevitably cause some pressure on domestic enterprises, prompting domestic enterprises to innovate, improve their comprehensive strength, and keep up with the excellent enterprises; Fourth, developing countries can take advantage of the liberalization of international service trade to vigorously develop and actively export the service industries with their own advantages, so as to promote the optimal allocation of domestic resources and realize the long-term development of their own advantageous service industries.

The liberalization of international trade in services will have a predictable impact on the balance of payments, and the impact is on both sides. On the one hand, due to the increasing liberalization of trade in services, developing countries continue to open their imports, and a large number of foreign-funded services enter the domestic market, which is likely to cause the imbalance between supply and demand in the market, which will undoubtedly lead to the deterioration of the balance of payments to some extent. On the other hand, due to a large number of foreign service into the domestic, will inevitably lead to the corresponding service price is reduced, the domestic enterprises can choose cheaper service, so as to reduce the production cost, make to improve the quality of the product can get to a certain extent, in order to improve enterprise comprehensive strength, at the same time, can also be a large number of developing countries export their advantage service, through the import and export trade for its own economic revenue. In addition, with the advance of economic globalization and the liberalization of international trade in services, the liquidity of capital markets is gradually increasing, and for developing countries, the inflow of capital is of great benefit to the balance of payments.

The impact of the liberalization of international trade in services on technology is similar to that of the balance of payments. On the one hand, developing countries in the introduction of service trade, will promote the introduction of advanced technology, thus is the introduction of advanced technology are first occurred in the service industry, so that developing countries will have the opportunity through technical services technical advice, training opportunities, such as this, in turn, can help developing countries gain the progress of technology, at the same time, foreign service enterprises to invest in developing countries, will be the phenomenon such as technology transfer; On the other hand, with the gradual increase of international exchanges, more and more foreign service enterprises have entered the economic market of developing countries, which has brought great competitive pressure to enterprises in developing countries, forcing them to carry out technological innovation, realize technological progress and improve the competitiveness of domestic enterprises. Although technical barriers may exist in the liberalization of international trade in services, the overall impact on developing countries is more favorable.

To consider the impact of the liberalization of international trade in services on employment in developing countries, we should start with the characteristics of the labor force in developing countries. The labor market in developing countries is generally characterized by low comprehensive quality of personnel and low production efficiency, and is mainly engaged in manual labor and labor-intensive work. With the promotion of the liberalization of international service trade, more and more foreign service industries enter the domestic service market, which is a great blow to the domestic service industry. It will directly lead to the shortage of labor resources in related industries and affect the normal operation of relevant material production sectors. At the same time, for hi-tech industries, such as electronic communications, medicine, law, developing countries lack of human resources and related industry development can not be independent in developing countries, foreign related services into the domestic market, will inevitably lead to developing countries, lost a lot of high and new technology industry development opportunities, which will affect the labor employment situation of related industries. Despite the adverse effects, the liberalization of international trade in services has provided developing countries with an opportunity to export their labor, which is also a good thing for the labor market of developing countries and has greatly relieved the employment pressure at home.

The effects of international trade in services liberalization on economic security mainly have two aspects, on the one hand is the impact on the national economic sovereignty, investigate its reason, one is because, in some high and new technology industry, a lot of key technology in the developed countries, by developing countries in promoting service trade liberalization had to make some concessions and commitments, it will hurt the economic rights and interests of developing countries, the other is because of the foreign advanced service industry to enter the domestic market, the competition is not fair, for developing countries will to some extent, limits the development of high-tech industry in developing countries, Heavily dependent on foreign imports for service technology; On the other hand is the impact on the economic stability, for the national economy, the economic sovereignty and economic stability is closely linked, affects economic sovereignty, economic stability will be affected, and there are two main reasons, one is because in the international trade in services, service industry countries will mainly develop their own advantage, causing the market strain capacity, the other is due to the international service trade liberalization process, inevitably will strengthen the relationship with the international capital markets, in the event of unrest, the economy of developing countries are bound to be affected.

In traditional international trade in services in the market, the developing countries mainly rely on cheap labor and natural environment conditions, such as to develop tourism, labor export and other projects, in order to achieve the purpose of generating revenue, but in the long run, blindly rely on non-productive service is difficult to gain a foothold in the international trade in services markets, developing countries depend on such export projects, time can obtain benefits, but, after all, not a long-term plan. Today's society, service industry increasingly close contact with production department, generally speaking, international service trade powerful nation, its material production level is relatively high, with the improvement of science and technology level, the service industry is increasingly inclined to information services, if developing international is still the international services limited to the information provided by the service, will be eliminated by the international market. Therefore, it is necessary for developing countries to attach importance to the development of productive service projects so that the service industry and material production can promote each other. In this way, on the one hand, the quality and competitiveness of their own products can be improved; on the other hand, the domestic economic structure can be effectively improved and the dependence on products from foreign markets can be reduced.

At present, one of the major advantages of developing countries is their cheap labor force. However, as a developing country, they should have a long-term vision and should not be limited to the present. Although the export of cheap labor force is a major advantage at present, with the progress of science and technology, this advantage is gradually disappearing. With the vigorous development of the high-tech industry and relevant industry needs high-quality talent, while the high-quality talent in the labor market prices are relatively high, but it has the additional value can not be ignored, in contrast, labor in developing countries, although the price is relatively low, but the general quality is poorer, lack of certain cultural technology level, cannot be competent for related work, can only work in the simple labor intensive. Therefore, developing countries should attach great importance to the personnel quality of domestic labor market, it is not denied the existence of the cheap labor as advantage, the development of each country need such a stage, but developing countries to achieve a long-term development, needs to have a broader field of vision, lay a good foundation for future development.

Present in the international community and international service trade gradually from non-production services to production services, and production is mainly the information service, the high to the requirement of high and new technology, thus will damage to related industries in developing countries, on the one hand, for this kind of new and high technology industries in developing countries has very strong demand, on the other hand itself in the development of these industries will be affected by some pressing, development is slow. For this, the developing countries need to a positive attitude to face, take the initiative to set up their own high-tech industries, in the early, can adopt the method of direct investment, in the form of trade process as a result of the general is directly introduced a result, rather than to learn the technology, and adopt the way of direct investment more conducive to learning technology, as much as possible to avoid import dependence. When introducing relevant technologies, there may also be national sovereignty issues. Developing countries need to consider all aspects and formulate relatively sound policies.

At present, in the relevant international negotiations on the liberalization of international trade in services, the general trend is dominated by the developed countries, while the developing countries are in a relatively passive position. Even if they suffer from unequal treatment at the negotiating table, they can only put forward simple objections, but cannot take concrete and feasible measures. , for developing countries in international service trade related international negotiations, should mainly focus on two points, one is to pay attention to protect their own advantage of the service industry, don't be too much eating and extrusion, the other is for some inequalities, wants to be able to be in opposition at the same time, puts forward the feasible measures to help their own advantages to service industries have a broader development.

Under the drive of economic globalization, the international trade liberalization are also accelerating, international service trade liberalization has influence on the developing countries from various angles, but due to the developing countries in the field of high and new technology development is slow, and turning to the information service at present, this gives developing countries a lot of challenges. Therefore, developing countries should actively make relevant adjustments, make rational use of their own advantageous resources, conform to the trend of international service trade liberalization, and elevate their own economies to a new level.

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Essay代写：Digital trade rules

下面为大家整理一篇优秀的essay代写范文- Digital trade rules，供大家参考学习，这篇论文讨论了数字贸易规则。随着大数据技术的发展，全球经济进入了一个迅速的变革时期，数字经济渗透在人类生活的各个领域，数字贸易也得到了迅猛的发展。然而，目前全球数字贸易规则尚未成熟，出于国家利益的考虑，各国正在展开激烈的博弈，争议的焦点在于“跨境数据自由流动、数据存储本土化要求、个人隐私保护、数字知识产权保护、数字贸易关税”等问题上。

With the development of global digital trade, developed countries such as Europe and the United States are actively competing for the dominant power in the formulation of digital trade rules. The free flow of cross-border data, protection of digital intellectual property rights and tariff of digital trade have increasingly become the focus of attention of all countries. In order to cope with this situation, China should, on the premise of giving priority to data sovereignty, paying equal attention to economic development and personal information protection, guide enterprises to improve the degree of compliance with laws and regulations related to digital trade, strengthen the self-discipline of the industry, and actively participate in the formulation of international rules for digital trade through bilateral or multilateral trade negotiations.

With the development of big data technology, the global economy has entered a period of rapid change. Digital economy has penetrated into every field of human life, and digital trade has also achieved rapid development. However, the rules of global digital trade are not yet mature. Due to the consideration of national interests, countries are engaged in a fierce game. The focus of the dispute lies in such issues as "cross-border data free flow, data storage localization requirements, personal privacy protection, digital intellectual property protection, and digital trade tariffs".

As the country with the most developed digital trade, the United States tends to give way to the free flow of cross-border data, so as to maintain its leading position in this field. Under the efforts of the United States, the oecd adopted the guidelines on the protection of personal privacy and the cross-border movement of data in 1980. The third part of the guidelines stipulated that member states should not restrict the free cross-border flow of personal information on the grounds of protecting personal privacy. When the guideline was revised in 2013, it proposed to strengthen data sharing among privacy protection agencies in various countries. Strengthening understanding of privacy and cross-border information flow policies among member states.

The APEC privacy framework of 2004 had a more American will, taking the OECD guide as a guide to encourage information sharing among members and the free flow of data across borders in the asia-pacific region. In order to better implement the APEC privacy protection framework, APEC further launched the information privacy pathfinder project, proposing to establish a transparent, simple and industry-disciplined cross-border privacy rule system applicable to business organizations. However, both the OECD guide and the APEC privacy framework are guiding documents and are not binding on its members.

In recent years, the United States has begun to introduce relevant content of cross-border data flow in various free trade agreement negotiations, in order to build an international digital trade rule system reflecting its own position. The America - South Korea free trade agreement in 2012 for the first time in FTAs e-commerce section into the rules of cross-border data flows, and prescribed in article 15.8 "of the parties need to avoid the cross-border data flows set unnecessary obstacles", in the transatlantic trade and investment partnership agreement, the trans-pacific trade and investment partnership agreement and the service trade agreement negotiations, the United States has also been concerned about cross-border data flows freely. After President trump took office, although the United States announced its withdrawal from the TPP and shelved the negotiations on TTIP and TISA, its attitude towards the free flow of cross-border data has not changed. During negotiations on the north American free trade agreement, which began in 2017, the trump administration made clear that one of the goals of the negotiations was to ensure that NAFTA members did not impose restrictions on cross-border data flows and that they did not require localized data storage. In the us, Mexico and Canada agreement signed in 2018, the us also repeatedly pressed and finally established the requirements of "free flow of cross-border data" and "non-compulsory localization of data storage" in the agreement.

Since the eu's digital industry lags behind that of the United States, and Europe has historically attached great importance to the protection of personal privacy, the eu has always maintained a reservation on the free flow of cross-border data, requiring companies to obtain the prior consent of the information owner before collecting, using and processing personal information.

In digital trade negotiations, the disputes caused by "free flow of cross-border data" and "protection of personal privacy" are the most intense in the game between Europe and America. The United States and the European Union have signed the safe harbor agreement and the privacy shield agreement to coordinate the issue. , according to the safe harbor agreement by America's federal trade commission or the jurisdiction of the department of transportation agencies and organizations can apply to the safe harbor, join the safe havens of organization or institution should promise to respect its eu customer data privacy, and built to meet the requirements of the eu data protection standards, recognition of the enterprise can transmit the data from the eu to overseas. But the snowden affair in 2013 led to a complete loss of confidence in the deal, and the safe harbour agreement was declared null and void in 2016. After that, Europe and the United States signed the privacy shield agreement, which stipulated that American organizations could only access relevant data of eu member states in specific fields or for specific purposes. That same year, the European Union through the general data protection ordinance, GDPR to take effect on May 25, 2018, GDPR to further improve the personal information protection in the eu member states, portable and provisions of the personal information right and forgotten right and other rights, on the premise of citizens could ensure privacy, allowed to cross-border flows of data.

Before trump government came to power, the transatlantic trade and investment in the partnership agreement and the agreement on trade in services, for cross-border data flows and data store localization the two core issues, there are still differences on both sides, the eu's attitude is not completely unlimited is a cross-border data flows, in a "legitimate public policy objectives should be allowed to" localization of data storage, but for what is a "legitimate public policy objectives," the two sides failed to reach agreement. Although the European Union and Canada, the comprehensive economic and trade agreement signed by the eu changes the traditional practice, tried to use negative listing the pledge, but in the computer and related services liberalization commitment at the same time, and the data of financial services, audio-visual services electronically transmitted content services excluded, shows a cautious attitude towards cross-border data flows freely in the European Union.

Other countries outside Europe and America have their own agendas. For example, under the concept of data sovereignty first, Russia opposes the free flow of cross-border data and proposes that the storage and processing of its citizens' data must be carried out in servers within its own territory. Brazil, India, Malaysia, Vietnam and other countries hold the same attitude. The reasons behind this conservative cross-border data flow regulation, which will prohibit the transfer of domestic personal data abroad, are complex, mainly based on information security, privacy protection, domestic information monitoring and industrial protection. On the one hand, Japan, Singapore, Australia and other countries cannot fully agree with the free flow of cross-border data because the development of digital technology and digital economy lags behind that of the United States. On the other hand, they are also concerned about the negative impact of too strict restrictions on the Internet economy in their country, so they adopt a compromise attitude, suggesting that some data localization measures can be implemented when considering public policy goals.

Since the objects of digital trade are mostly knowledge-intensive products, intellectual property protection has naturally become an important issue in digital trade negotiations. In the digital trade negotiations led by the United States, the protection of intellectual property has always been emphasized. The U.S. side's demands on intellectual property are mainly reflected in the following aspects: first, the U.S. believes that source code has high value and belongs to the business secrets of enterprises. Source of mandatory public of digital technology which is leading us companies, and therefore the digital trade talks dominated nearly all put forward the requirement of the "source code" optional localization, for example in chapter TISA e-commerce and TPP14.17 provisions shall not be forced open software source code as the premise of market access.

Second, the us side pays great attention to ipr enforcement and emphasizes the enhancement of ipr enforcement in cross-border goods, as well as the transparency of enforcement process and results. This demand has been reflected in early anti-counterfeiting trade agreements and more recently in the us-mexico-canada agreement.

In addition, the United States in a variety of digital trade negotiations also stressed intellectual property rights infringement network service providers should not bear joint and several liability, the U.S. trade representative office even argue that when the infringing content is provided by the other party, let ISPS bear tort joint liability is a kind of digital trade barriers, ISPS have to do is just at the request of the holder of the intellectual property right of remove infringing content will be relevant.

Regarding the localization of source code, the eu and the us hold the same attitude, that is, "transfer or access to software source code should not be a prerequisite for market access". As ipr intensive enterprises account for nearly 40% of the eu economy, they are crucial to the economic development of the eu. Therefore, the eu also has a similar demand with the us on the formulation of intellectual property rules for digital trade: comprehensively promoting the provisions of "TRIPS plus" in the enforcement of intellectual property rights. Although the European parliament ultimately rejected ACTA because of concerns over privacy, the eu has insisted on terms consistent with ACTA in trade negotiations with mid-sized economies such as South Korea, India and Canada. Examples include the eu-korea free trade agreement and the eu-canada comprehensive economic and trade agreement. Since the Internet intermediary service platform of the eu is not well developed, and American companies such as Google and facebook occupy the main share, the eu and the us have different demands on ISPs liability, insisting that ISPs should be jointly and severally liable with a few exceptions.

To protect network security, countries with less developed digital technology, such as Brazil and Indonesia, have made providing software source code or restricting encryption a prerequisite for foreign companies to enter their markets. Brazil and Indonesia, for example, both regulated government procurement in 2015, requiring foreign it companies to disclose source code when providing services related to public services. In terms of intellectual property protection and ISPs responsibilities, these countries also have different claims for their own national interests.

As early as 1998, WTO members had reached a consensus on "temporary exemption of tariffs for electronic transmission itself" in the declaration on e-commerce. But there is still no agreement on whether electronic transmissions should be permanently exempt from tariffs and whether they should be legalized. That is because some WTO members, such as India and Indonesia, worry that permanent exemptions would reduce their own revenue and lose leverage with their negotiating partners on other issues.

Electronic transmission itself shall be exempted from tariff consensus means that digital products if electronically transmitted can be no tariffs, but for the attached to the physical carrier of digital products, whether for cross-border transactions should impose tariffs or reduce tariffs, WTO members have different opinions, if assessed, seemed to contradict technology neutrality principles. The information technology products agreement, reached in Singapore in March 1997, adopted a positive list approach, providing for the elimination of tariffs on some 200 information technology products, including computers, computer software, communications equipment, semiconductors, etc. by 1 January 2000. Due to the rapid upgrading of information technology products, the parties agreed to further expand the scope of digital products subject to tariff exemption and reduction after consultation in 2015.

The general agreement on tariffs and trade should apply if the digital products transmitted electronically are considered to be goods, but if such transmissions are considered to be services, the general agreement on trade in services should apply. The degree of liberalization and treatment of international trade under the two rules are different.

As a major exporter of information network products, the United States' position is that e-commerce should be governed by the general agreement on tariffs and trade, and wants zero tariffs for digital trade. As early as 1998, the United States passed the Internet tax exemption act at home, and in 2003, it was extended through legislation. The Internet tax exemption system has continued to this day.

The European Union, on the other hand, expressed its reservations, stressing that e-commerce should be governed by the general agreement on trade in services, so members could refrain from making substantive commitments. At the same time, in order to protect its own culture and limit the invasion of foreign culture, the eu links e-commerce with audio-visual services and adheres to the principle of "cultural exception". In bilateral or multilateral trade agreements, the eu attaches audio-visual exceptions to the chapter on trade in services. The eu also don't agree with digital products in the United States permanent tax exemption, the VAT change act of 2000, the European Union to services provided in digital way, and online trading goods are included in the scope of VAT, although temporarily not to impose tariffs, but requires that all eu member states of the consumer via the Internet to sell audio and video products, software, electronic products such as the eu member states, all should be paid to the eu VAT. In a back and forth with the us, the eu has finally agreed to stick to tax neutrality and not to impose new taxes on companies trading in digital goods other than VAT.

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