Essay代写：The national security council

下面为大家整理一篇优秀的essay代写范文- The national security council，供大家参考学习，这篇论文讨论了美国国家安全委员会。二战前，美国长期奉行孤立主义。然而，二战后美国以国家安全委员会的创建为主要特征，在政府体制、国家安全观念和总体政治发展趋势上发生了剧烈的转向。二战和冷战的开始重新塑造了以美国国家安全委员会为轴心的美国国家安全体制。作为总统制定国家安全政策的主要平台，国家安全委员会已成为美国国家安全政策的中心。

The United States had long been an isolationist before World War II. However, after World War II, the United States, with the establishment of the national security council as the main feature, experienced a sharp turn in government system, national security concept and overall political development trend. The beginning of the World War II and the cold war reshaped the U.S. national security system centered on the U.S. national security council. As the President's main platform for formulating national security policy, the national security council has become the center of U.S. national security policy. Here, this paper attempts to analyze the reasons for the birth of the national security council from the following aspects.

On December 7, 1941, as the smoke of war broke out at Pearl Harbor, the United States rushed into World War II. In this age of new long-range weapons, the United States has learned that "neutrality" cannot protect itself, and that the sea is no longer a natural defense for the homeland.

World War II shook up America's traditional national security and exposed many serious institutional problems. During the war, the United States government's military command system, governmental organization system and decision-making process were all in trouble, especially the lack of coordination between the services, the military and diplomatic departments, and the lack of the mobilization of domestic resources necessary for the war. When the army and navy are separated, there is only one joint army and navy commission to coordinate and coordinate the two services. Therefore, during the war, there were many institutional changes or temporary organizational changes in the government and the army. For example, in February 1942, the President of the United States used his wartime prerogative to establish the joint chiefs of staff in the wake of the British, to assist the President in commanding the joint army and navy operations. In December 1944, the coordination committee of the state department-war department-navy department was established to coordinate the views of the three departments on issues related to political and military affairs. However, due to the defects of the system itself, the departments in these mechanisms still tend to solve their own problems from their own point of view, unable to dismiss the interests of the departments and integrate the diplomatic and military at a higher level.

At the same time, the global war made the United States realize that after the war, "national security" would become a "high politics" above all government affairs. A country must be placed under the framework of the international system, which is the best way to protect its own security. National security is not only limited to homeland security, but also needs to actively promote American values to the international community through development forces, otherwise it can only be in a passive position. To adapt to the new situation, the reorganization of institutions is imperative.

In the American history before World War II, the relationship between the President and the congress is balanced. No party of the President and the congress is always in the position of dominating foreign policy, and the achievement of dominant status is changing with the constant change of political environment. During World War II, due to inherent defects such as large personnel, decentralization of power and slow decision-making speed, it was difficult for congress to make timely foreign decisions. Therefore, congress often transferred diplomatic power to the President, and the presidential power was expanded.

Franklin Roosevelt became President in 1933. He is a President who likes to handle politics through informal, AD hoc institutions. In 1939, under the government reorganization act, Roosevelt established the "executive office of the President," an agency whose staff served the President's needs. Due to the complexity of affairs, Roosevelt soon expanded the size of the "executive office of the President" to become the President's aides and advisers, and relied on these non-fixed, flexible and adaptable bodies for daily administration. The President did not make it into a designed role, despite the creation during the war of coordination between services such as the joint chiefs of staff. This approach provided great convenience for Roosevelt to run the government for national administration, but it also brought great hidden trouble -- the formal institutional structure did not play its due role, and even caused chaos in the institutions and administrative personnel. Many top leaders do not want this chaotic organization to continue. Roosevelt died in April 1945, President Truman hastily took over, to a secret decision made after Roosevelt knew little, and his own lack of necessary professional knowledge and experience to deal with the end of the second world war, the cold war after the launch of the chaos of the international and domestic situation, as a result, congress is an urgent need to a coordination mechanism, to limit the power of the President at the same time, to help the President to the challenge.

The World War I has completely broken the world pattern centered on Europe for a long time. The world history has shifted from the old era dominated by European powers to a new era with a bipolar pattern. The us-soviet bloc confrontation has become a new feature of the international system. After World War I, the United States tried to interfere in the world order but failed. This time, the unreachable comprehensive national strength enabled the United States to dominate the international order in the way of realizing its own interests.

On February 22, 1946, the U.S. ambassador to Sue George Kennan agents to the state department sent a cable up to 8000 words. In "long electricity", Kennan analyzed the strategy of the post-war Soviet union. He believed that the basic goal of American foreign policy must be: first, to defend national security and enable the country to always pursue its internal development without being threatened by serious foreign interference or interference. The second way to advance the well-being of one's own people is by promoting the formation of a world order in which one country can make the greatest contribution to the peaceful and orderly development of other countries and derive the greatest benefit from their experience and capabilities. Chang 'e pointed out that the Soviet union's perception of the world and its behavior originated from Russia's traditional insecurity, which was justified by marxist ideology. Ideological conflict led the United States to view the Soviet union as a threat to its own interests. In order to restrain the Soviet union as much as possible, enhance national security and seek world hegemony, it is necessary to establish a multi-level coordination mechanism so as to make efficient decisions at the strategic level and remedy the defects in the traditional diplomatic system and national security system.

Under the above the comprehensive factors, on July 26, 1947, congress passed the state security law, established the United States after the war of the whole security system, including military and diplomatic, one of the most important is the establishment of the national security council, the agency development process reflects the basic form, the political process in government, ideology and so on various aspects of change.

51due留学教育原创版权郑重声明：原创essay代写范文源自编辑创作，未经官方许可，网站谢绝转载。对于侵权行为，未经同意的情况下，51Due有权追究法律责任。主要业务有essay代写、assignment代写、paper代写、作业代写服务。

51due为留学生提供最好的essay代写服务，亲们可以进入主页了解和获取更多essay代写范文 提供代写服务，详情可以咨询我们的客服QQ：800020041。

Assignment代写：The cultural symbols

下面为大家整理一篇优秀的assignment代写范文- The cultural symbols，供大家参考学习，这篇论文讨论了文化符号。文化符号，指的是一个民族、国家或地区长时间沉淀下来的文化资源的凝结式标识，它反映了某个特定社会或社会群体特有的精神和物质等方面的一系列特质。文化符号具有形象传播功能，不同文化背景的人们容易借助它达成相互交流和理解，因为人是符号动物。在公共外交中，利用本国或本民族独特的文化符号开展活动，不仅有利于传播本国文化，更易于塑造鲜明而有特色的国家形象。

Cultural symbols refer to the condensed signs of cultural resources accumulated over a long period of time by a nation, country or region. They reflect a series of characteristics of spirit, material, intelligence and emotion unique to a particular society or social group. Cultural symbols have been refined through time, are tangible, and have the function of image communication. People from different cultural backgrounds can easily communicate and understand each other with the help of cultural symbols, because human beings are symbolic animals. In public diplomacy, the use of the unique cultural symbols of the country or the nation to carry out activities is not only conducive to the dissemination of national culture, but also easier to shape a distinctive and distinctive national image.

Shakespeare was a famous master of English drama and a great master of Renaissance literature. His works not only promoted the formation of modern English, but also integrated its cultural charm into the British spiritual temperament. The British council conducted a study to determine the influence and recognition of Shakespeare. According to a survey released in March 2016, Shakespeare is one of Britain's most enduring cultural figures and a powerful cultural icon. The survey also showed that Shakespeare's worldwide popularity spans across regions, sectors and ages. Shakespeare is well known and well liked throughout the world.

Using this, the UK integrated resources to promote Shakespearean theatrical culture to the world in 2016. In China, not only brought English, drama, film, such as cultural works, also online, offline, popular culture in language learning, the feminist research covering many fields such as rich activities, is not only deepened the elegant and the connotation of traditional British impression, also pay attention to humanistic education and build the creative industries developed modern British image.

Compared with traditional diplomacy, public diplomacy is aimed at the people of other countries. More attention is paid to disseminating cultural concepts and building national image through communication and communication, as well as humanization of culture. However, its fundamental purpose is still to promote national interests. National interests are divided into direct and long-term interests, and direct interests refer to the expected economic income. A study published by the British council found that Shakespeare had a clear positive impact on the British economy. People's desire to visit and study in Britain is also related to Shakespeare. The one-year anniversary of the "eternal Shakespeare" will see a number of music and drama shows put on in China, which will not only bring considerable ticket revenue, but also bring more cultural and creative industries into China and become regular projects. In addition to the consumption of creative industries, the year-long cultural exchange will also attract more Chinese people to visit, study and invest in the UK, which is a short-term and predictable gain.

Apart from the short-term economic income, the biggest function of public diplomacy is to enhance the country's soft power. In today's increasingly globalized world, countries must think more about how to enhance soft power when dealing with international relations and formulating foreign policies. ? Joseph nye argues that soft power comes from a country's political values, foreign policy and culture. The reason why Britain has one of the top soft power in the world is the strength of its cultural industry and the strong export of culture. In Britain, the development of Shakespeare's cultural resources is both a cultural awareness and a way of protection. However, the UK chooses to use the cultural symbol "Shakespeare" in public diplomacy, and what is more important is the great contribution that "Shakespeare" can make to Britain's soft power.

Britain's public diplomacy, though global, has its weight. China has always been a top priority in British public diplomacy. Since the "creative Britain" in 2003, the UK has held a series of large-scale exchange activities in China, including "extraordinary Britain", "artistic description Britain" and "year of Sino-British cultural exchange". The characteristics of British public diplomacy towards China can be summarized as: integrated communication, deep interaction and long term effectiveness. But in the "eternal Shakespeare" commemoration in 2016, Britain's public diplomacy towards China took on new characteristics.

In the past public diplomacy activities, the British creative industry almost covers a variety of fields such as architecture, literature, music and so on, and the cultural symbols are very rich. The combination of the meanings of the symbols may show a long and splendid history and culture of a country, but each symbol exerts an equal force, which gives a less distinct impression. In 2016, all activities in the UK were organized around the cultural symbol of Shakespeare, which lasted all year and was strong and impressive. At the same time, the theme is clear. By showing the British development of Shakespeare's works, Chinese audiences are guided to understand and love Shakespeare and achieve self-growth, and finally their attitude towards Britain is changed or strengthened. Although the cultural symbol is single, the memorial is not limited to drama performance, but there are music, drama, film and other touring performances offline, and there are knowledge popularization programs such as open classes and intelligent classes online.

In the program, several major troupes in the United Kingdom brought a good performance in turn, basically to the month to play, key cities covered. The film screening of the British film association has been a longitudinal study of the transformation and remodeling of Shakespeare in the British film industry. The major troupes show the latest Shakespearean play by the modern British theatre company music. At the same time, considering the Chinese audiences' understanding of Shakespeare's culture, the British side has also set up open classes and intelligent classes to guide the audience into the works, not only to learn the language and cultural knowledge, but also to deeply explore its social significance. All the activities combined to present a three-dimensional Shakespearean culture, which better confirmed the theme of the activities.

In the program design, the British cultural public diplomacy has its clear audience positioning and stratification. The offline theatrical performances have limited tickets and high ticket prices, and the main audiences are those with higher education level and better economic foundation. They are the elite of China and the main force that is willing, able and likely to invest and consume in the UK. Online Shakespeare specials, intelligence classes and open online classes are more important to young people and even pupils. They are the future of China. For Britain, the advantages outweigh the disadvantages of familiarizing them with, understanding and even liking British culture as soon as possible.

In the era of "eyeball economy", a benchmark figure can often bring huge traffic benefits. The so-called star effect is to use the popularity of stars and the popularity of people to attract the audience. But only the star is far from enough, only the intention to create quality programs can win people long - term love. Britain's cultural public diplomacy knows this well, with the "eternal Shakespeare" memorial in 2016 featuring dazzling international stars as well as professional talent in various fields. Take the British national theatre as an example. In March 2016, the British national theatre selected three classic plays, namely "Othello", "king Lear" and "Hamlet", which were shown in turn at the guangzhou grand theater, which was highly praised. The three plays performed 11 times in three days, with a total of 2,600 tickets sold, according to nanfang. Three starred Adrian ? Lester, rory ? Kent kinnear, Simon ? ? bill Russell and Benedict ? Chambers batch, all is the star. Four star, "star effect" is the most significant is the star of "Hamlet" Benedict ? Chambers batch. When the same Hamlet was released in the UK, it created a 100,000 ticket sales miracle in minutes. As an internationally renowned actor, ji has a considerable number of fans in China. An hour before the tickets were to be shown in guangzhou, a large number of his fans were waiting outside, showing the "star effect".

The popularity of the program, of course, is due to the fan effect of the stars, but at the same time, it should be seen that this is the audience's recognition of the professional quality of British drama and Shakespeare drama. Among these, there are various professionals to strictly control the quality of the program. This was evident at the 2016 event. Of the royal Shakespeare company such as "the king and country" tour, by its chief art consultant, is famous for its adapted Shakespeare series of Gregory ? dolan served as director of art; Britain's academy of music and drama series performance by British music teacher, writer, theatre director qi ? roden fort guidance. The combination of professional rigour and excellent acting has created a golden brand of British theatre.

In order to touch the heartstrings of Chinese audiences and satisfy their cultural confidence, Britain, a master of cultural diplomacy, always pays attention to integrating Chinese cultural symbols into the activities, finding the connection with China and building Bridges of cultural communication and understanding. In this activity, Chinese cultural symbols were not only used as showcases, but combined with British cultural symbols to produce better cultural creativity. Take the stage play jing meng, jointly produced by British gecko theater and Shanghai drama art center in October 2016, as an example. With the theme of "dreams", the play is inspired by the "four dreams of linchuan" of Chinese legendary playwright tang xianzu, who is known as "Oriental Shakespeare", and Shakespeare's "a midsummer night's dream". This work not only expresses the understanding of love and dream in Chinese and English culture, but also integrates the classic works of two contemporary masters of drama. The deep integration and re-creation between Chinese and English symbols is not only conducive to the second communication of Shakespeare's culture, but also conducive to the in-depth communication between Chinese and English culture and closer the distance between Chinese audiences and British culture.

51due留学教育原创版权郑重声明：原创assignment代写范文源自编辑创作，未经官方许可，网站谢绝转载。对于侵权行为，未经同意的情况下，51Due有权追究法律责任。主要业务有assignment代写、paper代写、essay代写服务。

51due为留学生提供最好的assignment代写服务，亲们可以进入主页了解和获取更多assignment代写范文 提供美国作业代写服务，详情可以咨询我们的客服QQ：800020041。

Lab Report的写作方法与步骤

在国外大学读工科的留学生，想必经常会做实验吧。做完实验，那么就免不了写作Lab Report(实验报告)。Lab Report的写作核心就是实验研究，需要大家把实验分析透彻，来验证自己的观点。那么Lab Report该怎么写呢？下面就给大家讲解一下Lab Report的写作方法与步骤。

①摘要(Abstract)

简述实验目的，方法和结论。长度为一段。

②引言(introduction)

这个主要介绍你的理论背景，回顾一下其他人的实验结论。同时点明实验的目的，是什么促使我们做这个实验，实验要探究的问题是什么。引言里的中心句一定要有，其他的可以稍微自我发挥一下。然后可以讲一下背景，这部分内容尽量根据你自己的做的实验自由发挥背景可自由发挥，但中心句，实验目的和探究的问题一定要有。

③步骤(procedure)

就是根据实验列出你的Materials and Methods(材料和方法)，简洁准确地描述实验试剂、仪器和步骤。要去大致的交代一下你是如何完成整个试验的。步骤这部分一定要浓缩精简，最好成为四部分里最短的。老师要看的不是对实验步骤的复述，而是自己对实验的分析和实验数据。

④讨论(Discussion)

这一部分主要是对实验结果的理解，同时这部分也是整个实验报告的重头戏。前面三部分完美无缺，可能最多拿到80%的分数。最后的20%就看分析的艺术。

第一步：分析为什么你会得到你的实验数据，并给出结论如果你觉得实验数据有误，就加一个“错误来源”部分

第二步：分析为什么这个结论回答了引言中提到的问题。比如：因为催化剂会增加反应速率，所以生物体内蛋白质的组成和分解通过酶得到了加快。从实验结论层面上升到探究问题层面。

第三步：分析引言中的问题得到的答案对大的科目有什么影响比如：因为酶加快了蛋白质组成和分解，所以生物体的新陈代谢可以在很快的速率进行，进而使大型生物体得以存活。从探究问题层面上升到学科层面。分析其实可以自由发挥，但总体来说是从小的结论逐级上升。最后一段可以加一个结论，总结整个实验的步骤和分析。也可以不加，看老师的要求和心情。

以上就是关于Lab Report的写作方法与步骤，建议同学们在做实验的笔记一定要记得详细一点，这样的话关键的信息就不会被漏掉。

想要了解更多英国论文写作技巧或者需要英国代写，请关注51Due英国论文代写平台，51Due是一家专业的论文代写机构，专业辅导海外留学生的英文论文写作，主要业务有英国代写、essay代写、assignment代写、paper代写。亲们可以进入主页了解和获取更多关于英国代写以及英国留学资讯，我们将为广大留学生提升写作水平，帮助他们达成学业目标。如果您有英国代写需求，可以咨询我们的客服QQ：800020041。

Paper代写：The science of politics

本篇paper代写- The science of politics讨论了政治学科的科学性。对于不同学科来说，理论和体系的争论与分化的程度是不一样的。越是处在发展中的但还不够完善的和成熟的学科，体系分化和争论的程度就较为厉害。但这种分化和论争是学科走向成熟而不断具备科学性的必经环节。政治学目前的发展水平也决定了这一学科体系、理论的繁杂性和竞争性，但它决不是这一学科不具备科学性的论据，相反，它标志着政治学正在走向发展和完善。本篇paper代写由51due代写平台整理，供大家参考阅读。

In political science, and in all social sciences, people have value problems. Political life is an important part of human social life. Political phenomena and political process are directly related to human peace and development. Any kind of political structure, political norms or even a political event is impossible for human beings to make an evaluation of approval or opposition without considering its role and influence and from the interests of individuals and groups. Although there are political apathy levels in real political life to varying degrees, right? But this indifference is by no means a political isolation, and it demonstrates the dissatisfaction and revulsion of certain political actors towards the political status and political environment in which they are currently situated. Apathy itself is a political judgment. Therefore, it is impossible and impossible to live and develop in a realistic political form by only talking about political facts, not about the evaluation of political facts, and not considering whether the political facts that have already happened should happen or not. Although David easton identifies George horan sabine as a conservative political theorist and attacks him for linking factual judgments to value judgments, a close reading of sabine's book makes sense. In the preface to the first edition of a history of political theory, sabine argued that "fidelity to historical material -- the duty of every serious historian -- or acknowledgment of partiality -- is something that every honest man has -- and that one cannot claim to be impartial. Otherwise, pride yourself on being unbiased, shallow or boastful.

Sabine's preference is a euphemism for value evaluation. It is not just a question of value in political science research, but whether it makes political science less scientific. In the development of human knowledge, truth, justice and virtue are unified. Truth always stands for justice and virtue. And justice and virtue are always true. Therefore, facts and values, "what is" and "what should be" are not opposites, but interdependent and mutually restrictive. In political life, any stipulation of "ought" is derived from the requirement of human beings to develop forward and upward, and these requirements can only be made according to the inherent, inevitable and stable connection of political life. Therefore, if the political scientists to be able to stand on behalf of the direction of the development of human history class, class, political parties and the group's position, using reflect the law of development of human political life, ideal standard and principle to political matter real practical value assessment, the scientific evaluation rather than weakening the political science knowledge, on the contrary, because it will be true reason and justice organically, so as to make political science reflects the actual situation of political life and all the political living in accord with the duty of the creator and the human requirements, therefore, it is more scientific.

Behaviorism political scientists often talk about the tendency of value neutrality in the study of natural science, and to request other political research house in binary logic framework for painful choice: or adhere to the scientific nature, such as natural science that yao, you should also like natural science, to refuse or reject value evaluation, the so-called "value things"; Or to insist on the value judgment at the same time as the fact judgment, then, with the nature of natural science departure, political science lost scientific nature.

The above view of behaviorists contains an unjustified "axiom" that neither natural science nor value judgment can be used. In other words, natural science cannot be valued. This so-called "axiom" is actually absurd. Since natural science is the product and tool of human understanding and transformation of the world, human beings must be at the center of the development of natural science, and human beings should be the scale of natural science. This status and function of human inevitably requires natural science to serve itself, and requires it to perfect and develop from the needs of human beings. This inevitably raises the question of the human being's evaluation of his own natural scientific research. Of course, natural science does not lose its scientific character because of such evaluation. Similarly, political science, like all natural sciences, does not exclude value judgments, and it is in the rigorous evaluation of values that it constantly improves its scientific nature. Scientific and ideological

What is relevant to value is ideology. There are different understandings of ideology in real life. One kind of understanding regards ideology as a kind of mistaken cognition or a whole set of political myths and political illusions which are formed from the interests of certain classes in the society. This understanding has to do with the original origins of ideology and also with western political traditions. Another understanding is to regard ideology, which is the category opposite to social consciousness in the form of social psychology.

The concept of "ideology" originated from the enlightenment of European Renaissance. In this movement, a group of theorists and thinkers advocated a kind of "thought science" to oppose the religious teaching in the middle ages of Europe. They believed that to exorcise religious superstition and oppose theological fantasy, they needed to find and create the tools and means of certain thoughts. This kind of tool and means as thinking is "ideology". Obviously, this understanding of the origin of ideology has contained some subjective, mandatory, utilitarian component.

This negative element of ideological understanding was later inherited and abused by some bourgeois thinkers. It gradually evolved into a kind of political myth and political prejudice that defended the capitalist system and the social pathology. Marx and some progressive thinkers have criticized this ideology. In the German ideology, markus clearly pointed out that the German ideology at that time was filled with the wrong ideas and a whole set of political illusions reflecting the declining feudal class and the emerging bourgeois private interests, which he called the "ideology" of German society at that time. It is pointed out that the proletariat must struggle with all the reactionary classes in order to recognize this ideological reactivity and establish correct philosophical thinking.

Mannheim, a western political scientist, also distinguished two kinds of "ideology" from another perspective. One is the notion of a broader content, an ideology of "an era or a concrete historical social group or a class." In this way, there are three "ideological" factors in the process of human realistic political life: one is political propaganda and preaching that covers up the truth of political life and confuses the public with false things; One is the political principle, stand and ideal of a certain class and group; One is the spiritual concept that exists as a systematic and standardized social and political psychology. These three ideological factors are often intertwined.

In American political life, there exists an ideology that represents the interests of American monopoly bourgeoisie and contains these three factors. The ideology says: "the nature of American society is right, well, it is unrealistic to make alternative arrangements". The American government carries out its global strategy with this set of ideas. If it is consistent with the American ideology, it will support it, and if it is at odds with the American ideology, it will attack it. America wants to universalize its ideology around the world. The study of official political science in the United States permeates this ideology.

In the western political life led by the United States, the ideology playing a greater role not only represents the interests of the contemporary monopolized bourgeoisie, but also embodies the political principles, positions and ideals of the monopolized bourgeoisie. Moreover, it also contains many cover-ups, deceiving the public and narrating the people's goods.

With all kinds of political prejudice in the process of western industrialization, many political scientists put forward the proposition of "the end of ideology". This proposition itself contains both rationality and mystery. This proposition is justified when it is used only to dispel the harsh elements of social reality hidden in the rhetoric of western politicians and in the fraudulent mass media. However, if we want to use this proposition to show that any political position or idea will not affect political research, it is promoting another kind of confusing political myth.

To deny the influence of ideology on the study of politics, or to attempt to abolish it, is of the same nature, that is, to promote a myth of self-deception. It is impossible to attain the scientific nature of political science with such a myth. In the study of actual politics, political scientists always observe and think about political life with certain ideology, and describe and evaluate the state of the existence and development of political life. Only by acknowledging the influence of ideology on political science research and fully considering the negative influence of such influence on the objectivity and scientificity of political science research can political scientists always keep a clear mind and a calm attitude in the research, so as to strive to stick to the scientificity of research.

A considerable number of those who deny the scientific nature of political science take the unity of physical theory as the standard, and assert that the existence of many competing theoretical systems of political science cannot be scientific. However, if we can consider the history of scientific development for a little bit, we will find that both natural science and social science are following the law of "decentralization -- unification -- decentralization". People like today's physics because it is basically unified in Einstein's theory of relativity, and there are few other schools of thought or schools to contend with it. But physics does not arrive at today's state all at once.

Until now, physicists have been divided and fiercely contested on many important areas of the subject. For example, there has been a long debate between particle theory and wave theory about the nature of light. For example, there was a long dispute between the Einstein school and the Heisenberg school on what is the "reality" of physics. However, because of these different schools and systems, physical scientists do not easily conclude that the scientific nature of physics is negated.

Merton has commented on the competition and debate among different schools and systems in the same field. In his opinion, the argumentation and differentiation of theory or system in a discipline have positive functions, which can fully explain various problems and views and gradually integrate them into a larger theoretical system. At the same time, merton also objectively analyzed the impact of systematic and theoretical disputes on negative aspects. For example, stereotypes arise in such arguments, and these stereotypes naturally become fixed patterns. He said of the social sciences, "the sociologists of each side only observe the work of the other side selectively. The first thing they see in the study of the other side is the model of antagonism in response to the war. In the process, both parties become increasingly reluctant to study each other's work because the other's theory is totally wrong. This kind of situation will lead to the polarization of the theoretical research, so that the essentially not opposite but complementary theory becomes a system of irreconcilable differences.

For different disciplines, the degree of controversy and differentiation of theories and systems is different. The more developing but not perfect and mature subjects, the degree of system differentiation and debate is more serious. But this kind of differentiation and dispute is a necessary step for the discipline to become mature and scientific. The current development level of politics also determines the complexity and competitiveness of the discipline system, theory, but it is by no means the scientific evidence of this discipline, on the contrary, it marks the development and perfection of politics.

In the course of scientific development, the dispute between system and school will continue. When the debate over a problem is over, uniform rules and norms are firmly established. But this equilibrium of knowledge development will soon be broken, and it will be replaced by new ideas and new arguments. Thus, politics cannot avoid controversy in its own development, nor should it avoid it. The correct approach is to freely open discussion based on the actual situation of political life, and to bring political knowledge closer to the objective process of political life in normal academic debates.

要想成绩好，英国论文得写好，51due代写平台为你提供英国留学资讯，专业辅导，还为你提供专业英国essay代写，paper代写，report代写，需要找论文代写的话快来联系我们51due工作客服QQ：800020041或者Wechat：Abby0900吧。

Essay代写：Rational and irrational conflicts in public policy making

下面为大家整理一篇优秀的essay代写范文- Rational and irrational conflicts in public policy making，供大家参考学习，这篇论文讨论了公共政策制定中的理性和非理性冲突。政策制定作为政策过程的首要环节，是政策科学的核心问题。按照传统的政策学观点，我们应该在政策制定中排除非理性干扰，以理性的视角去构筑政策规划。对于个体决策者而言，他们的决策是在一种既包含理性又包含非理性的有限理性下作出的。而对于群体决策者来，他们对于政策问题的判断可能来自对于客观事实的理性分析，也可能来自于自身经验、直接等感性认识。正是由于这种同构，导致在公共政策制定中的理性和非理性的冲突究竟何者在公共政策中更重要。

Public policy formulation process is decision makers with the help of various technical means to influence policy problem of complex environment, information and other objective factors in processing, classification, integration, processing, and finally form the policy process, rather than completely decided by the decision makers take head, therefore, policy making process is a kind of rational choice dominate the behavior of the process. However, in reality, policy making is often seriously disturbed by many uncertain factors, and due to the limited cognitive ability of decision makers, there is a certain degree of irrationality in policy making. Although some scholars have sharply criticized the irrationality of government choice behavior, due to the development of policy science, they tend to accept the methodology of new institutional economics and non-mainstream economics, and advocate to study the formulation, implementation and evaluation of policies under the premise of limited rationality and information asymmetry.

Management guru drucker once said: "some of the most effective managers I've ever met use logic and reasoning, while others rely mainly on foresight and intuition. There are those who make decisions easily, and there are those who suffer when they move. This passage indicates that management is a kind of dual energy activity of human, which has both rational and irrational components.

In English, there are two expressions of rationality: rationality and reason. The former generally refers to the general mental ability to control regulatory behavior and abstract thinking, while the latter generally refers to the ability to reason narrowly. Rationality can be intuitively understood as the type of human behavior, which is characterized by observing things in the way of logical reasoning. If interpreted from the literal meaning, rational, with the basis of clear logic of thinking, through deliberation, calm reason, not easy to expose subjective feelings and other characteristics. Rational behavior usually refers to people's behavioral choice under the influence of some rational factors, which is proposed under the premise of calm and objective. Simon, who proposed the theory of bounded rationality, believes that the concept of rationality should be divided into the substantive rationality of economic discussions and the process rationality of psychological discussions. What the rational person of cognitive psychology does is to make his or her decisions in a procedural and reasonable manner, based on existing knowledge and means. The rationality in the public policy making mentioned in this paper refers to that the policy-makers give full play to the awareness of policy issues, and the policy formation mainly relies on the methods of analysis, judgment and treatment. Rationality in the process of policy-making is reflected in the aspects of technology, empirical evidence, reasoning, rationality and logic, which are mostly connected with methods, means and purposes.

The pure irrational behavior refers to people's response to the environment under the irrational drive of intuition, instinct, belief and emotion. From the perspective of psychology, the perceptual consciousness in the form of feeling, perception, representation and emotion cannot be as clear as the rational thinking in the form of concept, judgment and reasoning. In most cases, people's choice behavior is mainly governed by relatively vague perceptual consciousness, which is because people's conscious activity usually stays at the perceptual level, and this kind of bottom perceptual level consciousness activity will lead to irrational behavior in the pure sense. The broad sense of irrationality also includes the act of writing "optimally" in the absence of utility despite logical thinking. For example, Simon's understanding of irrationality as "any deviation from utility maximization" actually refers to irrational behavior in a broad sense. In contrast to reason, irrationality is active, dynamic and restless, and irrational factors are not limited by any logical rules. They often show unpredictable fluctuations or emotional impulses, such as instinct, intuition, inspiration, will and mysterious experience. The irrationality in public policy making discussed in this paper refers to the fact that policy makers fail to give full play to their cognition of policy issues, and their policy formation is mainly based on intuition, experience, external stimulus and so on.

Since middle period of last century, people started from the overall perspective to explore the change of organization operation pattern, the change in the future but by some dynamic and is unknowable, changing demand, the opportunity and choose the mix of factors, such as to take advantage of this change and get benefits, or less pay the price in the risk, the number of parameters and factors to consider, very much, this is even more need to intuitive judgment and feeling. Based on this view, the so-called non-deterministic environment is actually a subjective phenomenon based on individual perceptual knowledge. To be precise, uncertainty lies in the visible and invisible difference between the amount and kind of information required to complete a task and the amount and kind of information available. This perceptual difference is not an objective quantity, but determined by the individuals involved, which obviously represents the rich experience of the individuals. In this way, uncertainty is defined as something directly related to the individual decision maker, and this correlation is more important for their "mental state", that is, irrational factors.

Many objective factors in the process of policy-making have restricted the rational play of policy-making. For example, the timeliness of the policy, the problem to be solved by the policy is not static and isolated, but constantly changing, which requires the attention to the timeliness of the policy making and quick solutions to the current problems. In this way, policy makers are required to reduce the complexity to a certain extent and make timely policy solutions based on existing experience, intuition and even inspiration to make perceptual judgments on problems. In addition, the cost of policy-making, the limited cognitive ability of policy-makers and other objective factors all restrict the rationality in policy-making, leading to certain irrational factors in policy-making.

Nothing in the world is absolute, except the sentence itself. Although according to the traditional view of policy science, we should exclude the irrational interference in policy making and construct policy planning from a rational perspective. However, it is undeniable that the rational and irrational isomorphism of human decision-making behavior is an objective reality, and it has time continuity and space co-existence in the process of decision-making behavior. For individual decision makers, their decisions are made in a limited sense that contains both rationality and irrationality. For group decision makers, their judgment on policy issues may come from rational analysis of objective facts, as well as their own experience and direct perceptual knowledge. It is precisely because of this isomorphism that the rational and irrational conflicts in public policy making are more important.

As the first stage of policy process, policy making is the core of policy science. This process is directly related to the success or failure of the whole policy process. Therefore, it is necessary to make a comprehensive analysis and rational judgment on policy issues in policy formulation. We should not only understand the policies themselves, but also see the mutual relations, mutual influence and mutual restriction between the policies. It is also necessary to make scientific predictions on future trends, programme implementation results and their impacts, and take necessary precautions against possible negative effects of policies. Only in this way can we ensure that the public policies formulated can effectively solve policy problems and promote social development. Therefore, only a rational public policy making process can guarantee the stability, durability and effectiveness of policies. However, this kind of technical economic rationality is based on the hypothesis of "broker", under which it is relatively easy and clear to separate rationality from irrationality. However, as the rational analysis based on "brokers" is quite different from the reality, some scholars believe that the research on rational behavior is based on the normative research of economics, and its purpose is to point out the most reasonable result for people in a rational sense, instead of describing people's real behavior rules. "Our theory is a normative theory, not a empirical one," says game theorist susaney. At least this theory formally and explicitly addresses the question of what each person in the game should do in order to most effectively advance its own interests, rather than what he should actually do in this type of game. Therefore, the rationality in policy making leads to the simplification and simplification of policy objectives. Second, irrationality in public policy making is unavoidable

Reason is indispensable to human beings. People cannot exist without reason. But, when the rational feverishly pushing up to the "inevitability" and "omnipotent" status, negation and discard human irrational elements such as emotion, desire, will, and treat it as an objective and the embodiment of truth, and the rational measure everything, all deduction, deduction even human history, it is precisely to the opposite of its irrational, is bound to cause people to its profound reflection and criticism. The stoics in the history of ancient Greek philosophy believed that reason should, if possible, completely suppress emotions in order to achieve spiritual tranquility. According to Plato, reason is the highest attribute and power of human soul, and it should dominate human passion and desire. Obviously, both of them emphasize the absolute status and power of rationality, and believe that irrational factors such as emotion and desire are unreliable. They are obstacles to people's rationality, and they derogate people's emotions and desires. There is no denying that man should and can be rational. However, human beings are not purely rational animals, human beings have seven emotions and six desires, and human beings are rich in emotions and desires. In the process of human understanding and transforming the world, not only rational thinking plays a role, but also non-rational factors such as emotion, will, inspiration, belief and subconscious play an important role. When rationalism is in vogue, people gradually realize that the irrational factors in people's mind also have to play a role. In contrast to the highly complex and volatile social environment in which contemporary public policy is made, the knowledge and information available to anyone, no matter how exceptional, to support his or her decision-making behavior is limited. More importantly, humans as emotional higher animals, its decision-making behavior is not completely controlled by the rational, also will be affected by emotion, deep psychological motivation, religious fervor, value faith and so on the many kinds of irrational factors, individual experience, intuition, inspiration and other rational factors also play an important role in the decision.

In modern society, public policy making is different from individual decision making, and various interest groups and the public are playing an important role. We strongly advocate the democratization of policy making. In addition to implementing the political rights that citizens should enjoy in accordance with the law, an important purpose is to pay attention to the interests of the group to restrict the interests of the individual, to compensate for the limitation of the individual rationality, and to restrict the role of the individual irrationality. However, it must be seen that humans, as social animals, sometimes show a kind of group irrationality. Collective unconsciousness, group dementia and so on are the description of this group irrational phenomenon. Once motivated, this herd irrationality has few external forces to restrain it in the short term. This phenomenon is not only revealed by modern psychology, but also confirmed by numerous examples in reality. Recalling the mass frenzy in the unprecedented "cultural revolution" that took place in our country more than 30 years ago, we can feel the uncontrollable force of the group irrationality. Although for a society, the phenomenon of group irrationality only occurs in a few times, once it appears, it will have a significant impact on the formulation of public policies.

A more prominent example of the rational and irrational opposition in public policy making is the opposition between theory and experience. In public policy making, decision makers may encounter the situation that the policy plans analyzed by theory and those obtained by experience are mutually contradictory, which is the biggest headache for decision makers in public policy making. Faced with such problems, the choice of scheme is often very difficult. This is, of course, an extreme case. And in public policy making, the creation of any policy options are also not purely depend on rational or irrational, because regardless of the individual or group decision makers of decision-making behavior is a complicated process with reason and unreason, even from the point of view of behavior results is irrational choice, also contain more or less some rational composition. This makes the rationality and the irrationality in the public policy making appear both mutually opposites, also mutually integrates. Rationality ensures the accuracy of policies in the objective world, while irrationality ensures the effectiveness of policies in the real world. Rationality constantly corrects the irrational policy program, while irrationality in turn constantly improves the rational policy program.

To sum up, rationality and irrationality in public policy making are not separate, nor are there only conflicting sides. Therefore, in the public policy making, we should not unilaterally pursue rationality and deny the irrational role, which oversimplifies the complexity of solving the real world problems. Of course, the decision cannot be made entirely by the decision makers, which will lead to blind empiricism. This has left many painful lessons in our modern history. At the same time, we should face up to the conflict between rationality and irrationality in public policy making, and see the integration of rationality and irrationality. This special relationship between rationality and irrationality is utilized in policy making so that the policies formulated are scientific and humanized, effectively solve social problems and achieve policy goals.

想要了解更多英国留学资讯或者需要英国代写，请关注51Due英国论文代写平台，51Due是一家专业的论文代写机构，专业辅导海外留学生的英文论文写作，主要业务有essay代写、paper代写、assignment代写。在这里，51Due致力于为留学生朋友提供高效优质的留学教育辅导服务，为广大留学生提升写作水平，帮助他们达成学业目标。如果您有essay代写需求，可以咨询我们的客服QQ：800020041。

51Due网站原创范文除特殊说明外一切图文著作权归51Due所有；未经51Due官方授权谢绝任何用途转载或刊发于媒体。如发生侵犯著作权现象，51Due保留一切法律追诉权。