Failure Essay该怎么写

在众多留学文书申请材料中，Failure Essay是比较难写的一类。Failure Essay需要同学们去把握写作的度，不然的话就会有问题。Failure Essay写作的难点，就在于同学们对failure的度的把握，下面就给大家讲解一下。

1）首先要分清Mistakes和setbacks两者的区别：

如果所申请的学校要求提交failure essay，就会给出failure相关的Essay题目，比如，HBS问的问题是：three setbacks in your life。而Wharton的这个问题问的是：write about a failure or setback。Adcom Committee问这样类似的问题，包括：mistakes, setbacks and failures等，是非常相似的问题。在这一类问题中，Adcom希望通过这样的题目来判断你的self-awareness, resiliency, 以及在逆境下的反应能力。

这里给大家整理了这些概念的具体含义：

- Mistake和Failure：通常是由你的行为而导致的。

- Setbacks：而setbacks可以是外界产生的对你的影响。

举个例子，比如：failing to consider all aspects of your business strategy before starting a business，这就是一个mistake。但是，being laid off when your business fails to gain VC funding这就是一个setback。

而两者的联系在于什么呢？通常一个mistake可以导致一个setback的产生。所以这样看来，setback的范围就比mistake和failure更广些。

2. Demonstrate你的self-awareness

了解了上面我们所说的几种含义，那么问题来了，在failure Essay写作中到底应该写什么？这篇Essay显而易见的是想考察你的成熟度和self-awareness。那些让你阐述你的优点和和成就的文章写起来更加如鱼得水。而我们大部分同学些fail的经历，会显得非常的akward。其实你们不知道，能够意识到自己的错误和失败，并且能够为此承担责任，还进一步的可以从这些失败中学习的能力也是一个非常难得的长处。

很多future leaders可能在一切顺利的时候，可以很自信的面对；而一旦遇到困难和挫折的时候，就被打回了原形。所以，Adcom是想把这一类型的“leaders”剔除掉。所以，这是一篇从另一个侧面来展示你的strength，你的自信的文章。如果说，那些典型的achievement的题目是“阳”的话，那么这个题目就是“阴”了。

3）failure essay要强调Lessons learned和成长

我们大多数中国学子在写failure essay时，犯得最多的错误就是花很多篇幅去解释failure的原因，甚至为自己的failure进行辩护。殊不知这并不是招生官想看到的。建议去写lessons learned，然后写是如何从这些failure中得到成长，取得进步的。这样才是招生官想从你的failure essay中想看到的内容。

4）Show initiative and resilience

如果这篇文章问的是关于setbacks的问题的话，那么应该在这篇文章中表现出你的initiative and resilience。如果你的setbacks是又别人的失误，或者环境的不好造成的，那么千万要记住，不要去blame外界环境和别人。应该告诉别人你是如何create positive change in your organization的。在由不是自己的错误造成的setback中，应该更加的强调自己即便不是问题的制造者，也愿意去承担责任，帮忙解决问题等等。

以上就是关于Failure Essay写作的讲解，希望能帮助到各位有困难的同学们。

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Paper代写：The art of financial

下面为大家整理一篇优秀的paper代写范文- The art of financial，供大家参考学习，这篇论文讨论了艺术金融。艺术金融，指的是各类围绕艺术品市场主体所进行的资金融通和与之相联系的信用活动的总称。近几年，艺术品市场的发展进入瓶颈期，市场结构变化大；艺术品市场的治理没有突破，徘徊不前；市场对自己存在的问题难以找到自我更新的能力。艺术品市场转型需要新动力的建构，而艺术金融的发展是这种新动力建构的关键。

With the development of Chinese art market, more and more capital through various ways involved in art, opened up a new era of art capital market. The Chinese art market is experiencing the transition from traditional to modern. In the process of the transformation, capital in the form of intervention to the market changes, changes in the form of artistic production, trade and consumption patterns of change had an important effect. In traditional primary market and secondary market transactions at the same time, combining art with financial and produce all kinds of new formats arises at the historic moment, such as art, art funds and trust, the exchange, etc. Now, however, the financial industry, engaged in the artistic talent is very scarce. As a direction or branch of art management, art financial personnel can in art academies in the art of management, can also be integrated in the economic management specialty cultivation in colleges and universities. At present, the financial related field workers engaged in art is a more economic class or single arts professional background, professional background in economics is given priority to, the lack of art of tasting ability; A background in art, but the lack of management and economics related knowledge. Management, art and art appreciation ability, and knowledge of economics is extremely rare. Art management specialty as an interdisciplinary, should actively cultivate financial related art professionals, strengthen the cross culture and economics, management science, the art finance as a separate professional direction, enable the cultivation of the art management professionals to more targeted, more in line with the needs of the art market.

Financial means all types of art around the art market main body of financing and the floorboard of the credit activities associated with it. The art of special financial refers to revolve around the art market main body of investment and financing activities; The art of the generalized financial contains all around the main art market of financing and credit activities, including works of art investment, financing, art, art insurance, hosting, art art credit activities such as leasing, art trust and accompanied by all kinds of financial behavior. In recent years, the development of Chinese art market into the bottleneck stage, the change of market structure; Art market governance no breakthrough, faltering; Problems existing in the market for their hard to find the ability of self-renewal. The need to the construction of new Chinese art market transformation, and the Chinese art of financial development is the key to the new construction.

Art finance is based on the two disciplines of art and economics development, gradually developed into a relatively independent new formats. So large, market prosperity, however, the new formats, lacks both to understand art appreciation, with art background of professional knowledge, and to be able to see the art behind financial value, correctly evaluate the investment value and appreciation potential talents. Colleges and universities as the cradle of training talents, cultivate a batch of both understand the rules of financial markets, with international vision, and solid culture art accomplishment, know the works of art investment, appreciation and collection of knowledge, with the development of Chinese art in the financial markets and demand that meet the needs of high-quality professional management personnel responsibility. Today art management is a new discipline, curriculum system and curriculum standard setting is not yet perfect, art as part of the art of management, economy urgently needs the financial related knowledge system, so as to further perfect art management discipline.

Art of financial industry in its infancy, understanding of art financial limitations with many colleges, the lack of the understanding of related industries, and has not yet been related courses. Financial involves very wide range, and the art auction, art, art bank impawn financing, fund, trust, insurance, etc., on the positioning of talent training, one-sided, limitations and other issues. Currently, the main courses in art related financial institutions is financial institutions, and due to a lack of management and economics background teachers art colleges, training of relevant major in art market direction, the lack of a clear art financial talents cultivation knowledge building, give priority to with the traditional art history professor knowledge, lack of economic, financial courses, students of art unheard of financial industry related fields. The author believed that the institutions in making the talent training scheme, the cultivation of the art financial direction is different from the other direction of art management, adding knowledge reserves. Should combine their own colleges and universities teachers and local characteristics, the talent cultivating target accurately and reasonable positioning, combined with the future prospects of the development of financial markets, art training suited to their own characteristics, applied art, innovative financial management talents.

Because art is emerging professional management, the cultivation of teachers is still a gap, more impossible echelon construction, combined with the art discipline system across art, finance and financial management of multiple disciplines, such as large span, requirements for teachers team construction is relatively high. Open the most of the major in art colleges, teachers mainly art teachers, professional class teacher mostly from art history or management science, economics teacher transformation, the lack of trained professional education, know both art and understand financial multidisciplinary knowledge type teachers, give attention to two or morethings markets due to a lack of teachers need no one can teach courses, the curriculum is also inevitable roughing.

Financial management talent cultivation technique exist weakness talents convergence in China too theoretical knowledge, lack of contact in the field of economic and social, to respond to market demand sensitive enough to practice relative lag. Teaching activities and social disjointed, rarely participate in practice, depends on the book knowledge together for a long time, only pay attention to the theoretical teaching of metaphysics, the lack of contact between the related industries, ignore this major in the depth of the industry, policies and regulations, and industry information on related knowledge, ignoring the effective use of social resources, the teaching effect is hard to get the employer's satisfaction. With the rapid development of the art market in recent years, more and more financial related art, such as auction houses, galleries, art galleries, exchange, and brokers, curator, but fewer students in the campus and social contact, to understand a lot of the latest industry information, a little knowledge, the efficiency of the knowledge transfer is slow.

Art as part of the management, in the category of art management is different from art management, training objectives and the research content is different. In art management financial talent of art, the high quality training is more targeted to meet the market need, should be set up art in art management professional financial direction, realize art specialized training of financial talents.

Art financial specialized talented person is an art, art, art bank impawn financing institutions, art funds, trust, insurance, etc, to cultivate good ideological and political quality and professional ethics accomplishment, to grasp the method of system management theory, as well as the specialized knowledge of art, finance, management, and can independently for each link of the main work, has the plan, organization, coordination and decision-making ability of high-level and applied talents. Cultivating the talents need to be artistic, economic, financial, management, and other interdisciplinary knowledge background, can realize art in the art market development needs of various forms of financial derivatives.

Art financial talent cultivation should be comprehensive and scientific, more should pay attention to the theory of professional knowledge, including the combination of art and finance, strengthen practice. Art financial talent can be training in the art academy, also can be in the comprehensive university economic management professional training, different universities should combine their own characteristics, focused.

Organization sponsors and famous artists, art collectors, art, and art related bankers and financial workers, communication and dialogue. Second, pay attention to contact practice base construction at home and abroad, has a batch to organize the students to the art auction houses, galleries and other large art trade and exhibition institutions and field practice, draw lessons from the advanced experience of domestic and foreign art financial work.

To establish and perfect the teachers into the mechanism. Requires not only a high level of education of the teachers in colleges and universities, but also has the practical experience of experts. Will implement internal promotion knowledge, foreign introduction of talent strategy, through to participate in high level training, seminars, exchange, improve teachers' professional quality, strengthening teachers' professional level. Besides, teachers should be encouraged to closely linked with the social institutions, with market practice, more to the auction house art such as the financial industry related enterprise practice, will be out of the campus, classroom teaching in the process of practice. Through the teaching mode, get through the barriers of school and society, promote the students' intuitive perception and image understanding, enable students to advance into the role, to deepen the understanding about their professional. To actively recruit have rich practical experience, in the art financial related fields, the art market? P a line of work by the department of social people to join the teachers troop, in the form of lectures, dialogue and improve the teaching.

With the continuous development of art in our country financial industry, focus on the art and its resources asset-like, financialization, the construction of the platform and into a period of rapid development, art related financial talented person's raise is imminent. Art management professional knowledge reserves must accurately grasp the market development, according to market demand to set the direction of the corresponding, should be comprehensive and targeted. Art as an art of financial talent management professional in the professional direction, only to realize the specialized training, to meet the demand of today's art market capitalization, promote the healthy development of the art market.

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Report写作之前要做好这些准备

跟Essay、Paper写作一样，Report也是留学生常见的作业形式之一，不过Report写作更加重视对内容的分析，往往需要经过大量的调查或者实验才能得出结论。如果同学们不知道如何下笔的话，建议大家从客观的角度去分析问题，下面就给大家讲解一下。

开始之前，有言在先：

1.想写好你的report，有一个基础的环节，就是知道怎么写，特别是结构和内容上的整体安排，可以用的句型和词汇变化方法。这些知识点，是我课上的核心内容，不论你是否来过我的课堂，我假设你首先通过上课（或者自学）是知道基本怎么写的。

2.你的手头上应该已经有一些现成的参考资料，一些实用的参考书，否则，你的练笔，会缺少方法引导和自我反馈。

具体方法如下文：

1、死记硬背核心知识点

核心知识点包括：

·正确判断题型，知道每种题型的写作方法

·每个段落（开头、主体、结尾）的基本结构

·常用话题基本表达和替换常考题的观点

·通用句型和表达句型变化和高分技巧

死记硬背的效果是：对于每个部分怎么写，有明确的方向，知道写出来应该达到什么样的效果。

一般同学们看到题目能快速想到思路。不熟悉的题目，即使不能快速想到足够的素材，起码可以读懂题目，并且想到一些相关的基本表达。

2、复盘已写的段落

有时候仿写也是很不错的训练方法。写完后请对比自己的版本和参考答案，找到差异。找到可以提升的地方。这些差异也许是表达上的更加精妙，或者结构上的更加全面，或者内容上的更加自然。

如果你只是自己在看参考书复习，也是同样的方法。参考书里面用于讲解的题目，反而更应该成为你首先去练习的题目。

如果根据书里面的讲解，能写出和参考答案相似的句子或者段落，说明知识点完全掌握，如果不能，则还需要更多的理解。

3、写作

这是最重要的一个步骤，没有之一。看再多的参考书，抄再多的笔记，都不如自己的一次动笔。

只有动笔，才能知道，自己到底掌握没有，哪里好写，哪里卡壳。只不过，要选择适合自己的题目，不要拿个题目就盲目动笔。

（1）选一些经典的report题目来写。

（2）擅长的话题类型，写到极值。把知道的最好写的观点，最充分的论证，最精美的表达，都保证100%用处来。

（3）不擅长的题目，勇于挑战。（墨菲定理：你觉得这个题目太偏，老师不会让你写，最后偏偏就让你写了）

写之前：

· 参考笔记

· 想清楚自己的论证内容

· 赏析范文，学习里面的高分表达、句型和论证手法（记忆力太好的同学除外，否则变成了默写）

初期，限时和不限时去写都可以，但是绝不要拆分成几天去写，不论如何，一气呵成。到了最后冲刺，一定是限时写。

写之后：

·修改表面错误

·查不会的表达

·反向梳理结构、句型、表达

·替换重复的部分

检查自己的文章和赏析范文其实有异曲同工之妙，只不过，自我赏析的结果不会像report范文那么好，但相信我，一定会有让自己骄傲的地方，也会逐渐看到自己的进步。

4、改+反思

写完了，除了自我检查之外，找专业靠谱的第三方来修改，会更容易发现自己的问题。

找个靠谱的人，比如你的老师，或者是身边的native speaker.

这个修改，反思的过程，让我们更加明显的看到进步。犯错误是幸福的，我们把错误找出来，改掉就好了，总比盲目前进更好。

即便一篇文章最后只让我发现了一个错误，我觉得也是值得的，你在写report的时候，既然不可能做到完美，不可能拿到满分，那不就是尽可能控制错误的一个“自我救赎”的过程吗？

5、查漏补缺，补充练习

如果是词汇的不足，可以直接死记硬背话题常用表达和替换。这种总结在网上和畅销书里面有很多，大同小异，选定一个，坚持记背即可。

如果是语法的不足，根据你的错误情况和目标分数决定复习策略。如果句子都没写对过，那么，找出你高中的语法书，重新一丝不苟地复习起来。

如果是思路不足，具体到某一个题目的思路，则可以仿写范文里面的观点，甚至可以适当背诵。

如果是论证不足，这个提高会有点难度。自己复习的话，可以多去分析report范文的行文逻辑，进行学习。或者，尽可能简化自己的段落逻辑。

report写作的综合提高，相对有些漫长。高分取得，也不容易。但是，如果同学们的要求只是不要Fail，那大家的训练量肯定没有那么大，甚至不需要花太多时间就能完成。

不要借口没有时间。人只要能控制自己的生活，就总能找到时间。

以上就是关于Report写作的讲解，如果同学们想让Report拿高分的话，那么多加练习是必须的，这样才能尽快提升。

想要了解更多英国论文写作技巧或者需要英国代写，请关注51Due英国论文代写平台，51Due是一家专业的论文代写机构，专业辅导海外留学生的英文论文写作，主要业务有英国代写、essay代写、assignment代写、paper代写。亲们可以进入主页了解和获取更多关于英国代写以及英国留学资讯，我们将为广大留学生提升写作水平，帮助他们达成学业目标。如果您有英国代写需求，可以咨询我们的客服QQ：800020041。

Paper代写：Expressionism painting

本篇paper代写- Expressionism painting讨论了表现主义绘画。表现主义绘画是现代主义美术发展初期的重要流派。20世纪初，为了主观情感的表达，画家们在艺术作品中用色对比强烈，构图夸张变形甚至怪诞扭曲，用以表现内心的强烈情感。虽然他们的艺术形式和思想主张有分别，但他们都不在乎记录视觉印象，也不在乎对客观世界外在的表达，反对艺术的目的性，而旨人类情感体验与内在精神价值的表达，因此将他们都归为表现主义。本篇paper代写由51due代写平台整理，供大家参考阅读。

Expressionism painting for the early modernist art development, an important form. At the beginning of the 20th century, known as the "avant-garde movement" genre of art activities and active unprecedentedly, Rhine formed different new art factions, their representatives respectively fauvism, France, Germany, dresden bridge club in northern and southern Germany in Munich, the green knight. They all think art should give priority to with spirit, representation of an object shape is secondary. To the expression of subjective emotion, color contrast and painters in art, and composition of a picture exaggeration even grotesque distortion, to show strong emotions. Although their art form and idea have respectively, but they have in common: don't care record visual impression, also don't care the external expression of the objective world and against the purpose of art, the purport of human emotional experience and the expression of inner spirit value, so they are classified as "expressionism".

Various avant-garde art movement in the early 20th century, is one of the earliest art genres appeared fauvism. In Paris in 1905 more than Dan the gallery display, led by Matisse, artists, their works majolica, exaggerated modelling, style is weird, critics walker, criticizing them as "a group of wild animals", brutalist hence the name. Since 1905, was honored brutalist painting style, although extremely painters very stressed their painting originality, but still have some common features. They generally strong coloring, replace with pure color contrast, regardless of volume and perspective, subjectivity is very strong, composition, shape and subject matter most images have adornment.

Henry Matisse is the representative of fauvism painters and leader, brave and strong modelling, colour, exaggerated deformation harmony composition of a picture is a sign of his work. In 1905, he exhibited works formed its own unique style of mature, including the image with the green stripe ", "open window", "luxury quiet pleasure" and so on. These works, Matisse used a rhythmic outline peace with bright color piece to strengthen the expressive force and create a strong and harmonious color of the light and the space effect. 1906-1907, he continued to draw simple and lively work, highlight the adornment style. About 1909-1910, two of his huge painting "music" and "dance" marked the creation peak of Matisse, he is more and more pay attention to the simplicity and the decorative picture, trying to free imagination, in the form of the most concise and strong color piece contrast to express their emotions. These two picture with dark red painting figures, green and dark blue as the background, the use of different extent and the means of paper-cut and photography. "Music" in the painting, the conception of perfect harmony, Matisse to beautiful painted blue sky, painted with bright green earth, with the vivid red human performance. "I got from these three colors of light, and I hope to get pure color harmony between." - Matisse said. Sent the beast that exaggerated color and strong strokes play more incisively and vividly yes influenced by van gogh passion landscape painter, lachman morris and Andre virtuous orchid. Virtuous orchid landscape directly made large flat with high purity color, he can even bright pure color to paint the smoke-filled Thames, on behalf of as the "London bridge waters". Art activities of only about three years from 1905 to 1907. 1908 years later, most of the artists began to split, which created a black later cubist painting. Only still in their own path Matisse, lifelong defending what he called "harmony, pure and peaceful" the beast in the art.

In French fauvism limelight heat at the same time, the German expressionism is the emergence and development. Norwegian artist monk has a direct impact on the German expressionism. His childhood misfortune directly affected his writing style, in his paintings, subject matter more for sex, disease and death, with a strong pessimistic emotion. His early works the sick children, next to the clinical, more than the mother's death is the representation of his miserable childhood memory. Since the 1890 s, he began to write performance factors of work, with its own unique painting language calls and reveal people inside concealed anguish and pain. His representative works "scream" with turbulent line, horrifying pictures and composition profound raised the spectre of loneliness and the fear of death. His innovative spirit and unique artistic style to promote the emergence and development of German expressionism.

German expressionist two of the most famous groups, one is founded in dresden bridge club in 1905, the other one is from Munich in 1911 green knight new artists association. Bridge club of the initiator and representative ernst the kirchners, emil director and erich black Kerr. Stresses must show the painter when they create the illusion of personal and emotional, opposed blindly imitate nature, calls for artists against traditional academy of academic, hopes to establish a new, with the German historical tradition to contact but full of modern feeling and form of art, also is to erect a "bridge" between the traditional and modern, so the group named "bridge club". The kirchners is under the influence of gauguin and van gogh, promoting "naturalism", emphasize the painter's subjectivity and painting elements such as lines, brush strokes, color. From his famous portrait of the artist and the model of his can see, the picture carefully and powerful, to use the orange and blue, pink and green strong color contrast, works contains a Matisse lack of strong emotional color, stronger visual impact. Affected by the monk and the African sculpture, ugly black Kerr shaping characters, in the spirit of their anxiety, pathological form shows. Director is a Christian, his best work depicting Christ's life, such as "the last supper", "" the life of Christ, the Christ in the midst of the children, etc., even his landscape painting contains religious sentiment. The last supper of Christ and his disciples image exaggeration, director and mysterious symbol expression, will this religious painting behaved very religious.

Another expressionist group green knight, is by the russians who settled in Munich vassili kangding and two young painter Franz marek and auguste mike co-founded in 1911. Compared with the bridge club, no matter from the exhibition of international and compatibility, the green knight is more open, but they haven't formed a common style have a common belief that hope will not be visible inner spirit with abstract lyrical language expression for the shape and color of visible, fusing the spirit of artistic expression and profound content. The leader of the green knight kandinsky on 20th century art has the profound influence. Actively explore various art between equivalent of his life, tried to unifying reason and sensibility, through art to create a non representational painting, create a kind of independent abstract painting language, to achieve a kind of make people both physical and psychological effect of synesthesia can produce pleasure. At the same time, he also studies with circular and triangular geometry abstract as the main form of abstract painting. Kandinsky's works "on the spirit of the art", and the thesis "on form problem" "from point and line to plane" has reflected the achievements of his thoughts, but also become the theoretical basis of abstract art. Marek likes to keep animals as an original and a symbol of purity, claim to the art status instead of the traditional religion and philosophy. His masterpiece "the blue horse", the picture color is bright, bright and beautiful large area of blue on the red, yellow, green surrounded by a distinguished calm and lively, the animal perfectly embodied in the universe and the creator's masterpiece, poetic and sentimental feelings. Mike's painting style influenced by impressionism, fauvism, and cubism, learned their feeling and atmosphere, and combined with Germany's artistic appeal, poetic works with the lyricism, magnum opus "zoo".

Expressionism occupies a unique place in the western art history, its internal spirit has extremely strong vitality, not only contributed to the birth of expressionist aesthetics, a wider impact the artistic creation of modern China and even the whole world, the exploration and development of art should not be neglected, created a model of is also difficult to catch.

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Essay代写：The early form of British litigation

下面为大家整理一篇优秀的essay代写范文- The early form of British litigation，供大家参考学习，这篇论文讨论了英国诉讼制度的早期形态。盎格鲁－撒克逊时期，英国的诉讼制度主要有宣誓助讼和神明裁判两种基本形态。在制度设计和证据方法方面，宣誓助讼和神明裁判相对原始，缺乏理性和事实根据。在法律观念和司法原则方面，宣誓助讼和神明裁判具有鲜明的形式主义与团体主义特征，十分重视程序原则与社区责任，这是日耳曼法的典型特征。在英国普通法形成时期，这两种诉讼制度均走向衰亡，但其所体现的法律观念和司法原则却存留下来并构成普通法的重要标志。

In the Anglo-Saxon period, the litigation system in England mainly consisted of two basic forms: oaths and divine judgment. In terms of institutional design and evidence methods. The oaths of litigation and divine judgment are relatively primitive and lack rational and factual basis. In terms of legal concepts and judicial principles, oaths to assist litigation and divine judgment have distinct formalism and communalism characteristics, and they attach great importance to procedural principles and community responsibilities, which are typical characteristics of Germanic law. During the formation of English common law, both of these litigation systems went to the decline, but the legal concepts and judicial principles they embodied survived and constituted an important symbol of common law.

English common law is textual and practical. The litigation system that supports the judicial practice is particularly important, and its basic forms include jury system, writ system and so on. There is no lack of in-depth research in this regard. Before the common law came into being, the British litigation system mainly consisted of oaths and divine judgment. They do not form the institutional basis of common law, so there is little academic interest. However, the legal concepts and judicial principles contained in the two litigation systems should not be ignored and form the conceptual basis of common law. It is a product of Germanic tribal society and has the distinctive characteristics of Germanic law. Based on the study of Anglo-Saxon statute law, this paper intends to clarify the early form of the British litigation system and explore the legal concepts and judicial principles contained therein. And its significance to the formation and development of common law to clarify the Germanic origins of common law.

Comppurgtion, or "taking an oath", or "rectification," is a popular form of litigation and evidence in Anglo-Saxon society. In such proceedings, the plaintiff or defendant may by oath prove or absolve himself in a claim or charge. And through sworn litigants to strengthen. The litigant is not against the facts. It is the character of the recipient that justifies the oath. A litigator is usually a relative or neighbor of the recipient. The quantity and quality of litigants is important. If sufficient number of litigants cannot be found, or if they cannot be declared in an appropriate form, the grantee loses the case. The number of litigants is usually 12. In some cases, more litigants are needed. The oath must be correct and accurate. If someone slips of the tongue, he is deemed guilty of a false heart and the oath is broken, and the whole lawsuit is declared a failure.

In modern society, the truth is investigated and the accuracy and value of the evidence is measured. In Anglo-Saxon society there is little rigorous process of investigation and evidence in modern justice. However, if the accused is found to have stolen goods or other suspicious circumstances, or is notorious for having a criminal record or perjury history; Or the plaintiff has a title deed in hand. The defendant has no right to testify. The practice at the time was to deny the defendant the right to swear. In this case, the plaintiff has the right to provide evidence and make an oath to assist in litigation. If the plaintiff's oaths succeed, the defendant must concede.

In written law, the first written law of the seventh century, the Ethel law, did not provide for oaths, but several subsequent laws, the herat and idray, referred to the use of oaths. As stated in articles 2, 4, and 5, if a person's servant kills and escapes, the master shall pay compensation to the victim's family, and shall prove by oath that he did not know. He's innocent. In the late seventh century Kent's mitrid law, as many as nine articles provided for oaths, mainly concerned with how people of all walks of life claimed innocence and the number of litigants through oaths of people of similar rank. The law does not, however, specify the penalties for failure to do so. The Enid act, also promulgated at the end of the seventh century, was the first written law of the kingdom of wessex and had a greater influence on later generations. Although the provisions of the act on oaths are less detailed than those of the mitritish act, articles 25, 1, and 30 clearly specify the penalties faced after oaths fail. If the oaths and oaths are not accepted, a fine, large enough to amount to the defendant's ransom, is imposed. In this sense, the pledge to assist in litigation became popular in the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms as late as the end of the seventh century. Become an important way of judicial proof in Anglo-Saxon society.

The knut act's penalties for false oaths and perjury should be said to be quite severe. In terms of the proceedings, if the defendant abandons the oath, he will only face compensation; If he takes the oath, but is defeated, he is very passive and will face double punishment, not only suffering great physical or material pain or loss, but also losing the right to take the oath in the future. That said, he is likely to lose his right to argue in the next lawsuit. So the consequences of taking a false oath are quite serious. The penalty for perjury is lighter, but the punishment is similar. In addition, in a society with a strong religious atmosphere and limited knowledge, the religious fear of sin and god is very intense, and the perjurers and perjurers will have a strong psychological fear, forming a sense of guilt, and forming a long-term torture for the body and mind because of the false words in front of god. In the definition of oaths, ke zeng pointed out that "the solemnity of oaths reflects the religious fear of false oaths and perjury in the middle ages." It can be seen that the authority of oaths lies not only in the punishment of customary law, but also in the devotion of Anglo-Saxon society to religion. It is the religion and the common law that make up the middle ages' system of oaths and oaths.

As another important litigation system and evidence mode in Anglo-Saxon society, it is also a criminal punishment mode in a sense. When the defendant is unable to summon enough aid or its crime is so serious that the sworn aid is insufficient, it needs to be judged by god, which is the judgment of god. According to kezeng, the divine judgment is mainly aimed at four types of people: those who were caught at the scene of the crime, those who had committed a false oath, those who were not free, or those who could not provide sufficient sworn assistants. The lemming referee originated in Germanic tribal society, where it was believed that the world had supernatural powers and could show by giving a sign whether the accused was guilty or not. Therefore, when human beings cannot judge by themselves, they can judge by the manifestation of god through appropriate rituals. Generally, the divine judgment must be performed within the church and supervised by the church priest.

The divine judgment has many specific practices. In the Anglo-Saxon period, there were four methods: hot iron, hot water, cold water, and devouring. The so-called hot iron method, is by the defendant's hand to carry the hot iron forward a distance, generally nine steps; The wound was then bandaged in public and examined three days later. The so-called hot water method is similar to the hot iron method, except that hot iron is replaced by boiling water. The so-called cold water law, is the defendant half bundle and throw into the pool, if the sinking of the spirit to accept him, then exonerate. The act of swallowing is when the accused eats a large piece of bread for sacrifice in public. The law of swallowing was chiefly directed against the clergy, and the law of cold water was chiefly applied to the slaves, because it was undignified.

During the Anglo-Saxon period, oaths and divine judgment were the two main methods of judicial proof and court decision. At that time, the social development level was low and the royal power was relatively weak in the historical stage. It was reasonable for the oaths to assist litigation and the judgment of god, and because of the religious worship to god and the religious fear of false oath and perjury, it could play the role of adjudication and punishment. The sworn aid to litigation and the judgment of god continued in the Norman period and is still an important litigation system. However, both the sworn lawsuit and the divine judgment are relatively primitive in terms of system design and evidence method, lacking rational and factual basis. The divine judgment has a mysticism that has nothing to do with the truth and often leads to injustice. In 1100, a total of 50 suspects were tried and all of them were released without charge, a result that even king William ii, who was said to have publicly mocked the god referee, was deeply suspicious. It is based on the character of the litigant. Still, it is difficult to guarantee justice. With the "revival" of production technology and knowledge culture in the 11th and 12th centuries. More and more people begin to believe in human reason and experience, and realize the unreasonableness and injustice of these methods of judgment. Oath-assisted litigation and divine judgment gradually replaced by jury system or partial replacement. In 1215, the fourth Lateran council of the holy see ruled that clerics were not allowed to participate in divine refereeing, effectively abolishing divine refereeing. In some areas and some cases, the deposition of litigation remains longer. Into modern times.

Although the system of oaths for litigation and divine judgment was replaced by the later jury system, it did not constitute the institutional basis of common law, but the legal concepts and judicial principles contained therein. But it forms the conceptual basis of common law. These legal concepts and judicial principles are worth attention in two aspects, one is formalism and procedural principles, the other is group doctrine and community responsibility. These legal concepts and judicial principles are the distinctive features of Germanic law.

The formalistic characteristics of the sworn aid to litigation and the judgment of god. It can be explained through the ritual and procedure of judicial certification and trial. This formalism is also manifested in the sanctity of the oath. An oath is to be taken in a sacred place, such as a church, where the swearer takes an oath by placing his hand above the gospels, crosses, or other sacred objects and swearing in the name of god's presence. Therefore, both the oath of the oath and the symbol of the oath are very formal and fully show the formalism characteristics of Germanic law.

The gods' judges are equally ceremonial and methodical. The hot water and hot iron rituals state: "when the gods' judges are ready, each person will test the temperature of the water and must meet the required temperature. So is iron." Next came the Eucharist and prayer service before the referee: "the same number of people entered the church on both sides. All must fast, fast, and abstain on the night. The priest who presides over the communion shall sprinkle the holy water on the public, and all shall taste the holy water. Then the priest gives them the bible and the cross to kiss. When the sacred ceremony begins, no one can add fire. Hot iron should be allowed to burn. Hot iron was then placed on the case, and there should be no voices in the church other than to pray to god to show the truth. 'Xiu then god judge itself: "the defendant suffered god judge, wound was dressed, after three days of testing whether wounds fester." The ceremony itself takes up a long time during the judging process. And divine judgements generally apply to felonies, and the involvement of churches and clergy further enhances the sanctity and authority. The regulation also states that "if a person violates the above principle, the divine judgment shall be declared null and void. A fine of 120 shillings must also be paid to the king." It appears, therefore, that among the divine judgements, ritual and procedure are important, and have a marked formalistic character, and that the trial itself is declared null and void if in any respect there is error and the proceedings are not conducted according to the prescribed procedure. Rituals and procedures were of particular importance in Anglo-Saxon law, in addition to the religious belief that early societies believed in gods and resorted to divine rituals to reveal the truth. It is more the unwritten and customary features of Anglo-Saxon law. The process of judging is also a process of declaring law and justice, there is no text to read, and a good way is to perform it with a ritual. Maitland said: "as long as the law is unwritten. It must be dramatized and performed. Justice must take on a vivid appearance. Otherwise people wouldn't see her." In a word, both the oaths and the judgments of the gods are based on strict and standard procedures. Procedure precedes right, is one of the core concepts of common law, which is reinforced by the writ system.

The communitarian character of the Anglo-Saxon litigation system. This is mainly reflected in the support group for litigation under oath. A litigant is usually a relative or neighbor of a party. They live in the same family and the same village with their clients, and have a certain understanding of their usual behavior and actions, especially their personal character. The oath of a litigant is based on an understanding of the character of the recipient, and therefore, the litigant is not a witness. They support the parties simply because they come from the same group, the same community. In the Anglo-Saxon conception, members of the same community have rights and duties of mutual protection, mutual loyalty, and mutual trust. If one member is violated, the other members shall have the obligation to retaliate and safeguard the rights and interests of the members of the group through judicial channels. If one member is accused of injustice, the other member is also obligated to exonerate the member of the group. Any offence to any member of the group is an offence to all members of the group, which is a principle of responsibility and risk sharing. This kind of corporatism is the foundation of the aid mission. If the defendant is convicted under oath, or is deemed to have taken a false oath and forfeited the right to take the oath in the future, the litigant will also face punishment. However, there is little chance of litigation under oath, which is more about enhancing group or community responsibility. In this way, the litigant is using his own personality to guarantee the personality of the parties in order to strengthen the validity of the parties' oath. For litigants, their attendance at the oath-taking is not for the sake of impartiality, but because of their association with the parties, being in the same group, and having a duty of protection; Of course, the parties also have a duty of loyalty. The relationship between litigants and recipients is a typical relationship of rights and obligations. Later feudalism in a certain sense is the expansion of this relationship, feudal law is also a kind of group legal norms, which is one of the basic legal norms during the formation of common law.

There are two basic forms of the anglo-saxonian litigation system: the sworn aid of litigation and the divine judgment. In terms of system design and evidence method, the oaths for litigation and divine judgment are relatively primitive and lack rational and factual basis. In terms of legal concepts and judicial principles. It is typical characteristic of Germanic law to attach great importance to procedural principle and community responsibility. During the formation of English common law, both of these litigation systems went to the decline, but the legal concepts and judicial principles they embodied survived and constituted an important symbol of common law. The development and evolution of the early form of British litigation system also reflects the relationship between common law and Germanic law.

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