怎么才能写好Literature Review

对于大多数留学生来说，写Literature Review的时候都非常头疼。哪怕是经常泡图书馆的同学，开始写的时候还是毫无头绪。毕竟时间跨度太长的话，大家是记不清楚出处的，所以整理起来会非常乱。那么怎么才能写好Literature Review呢？下面就给大家讲解一下。

literature review怎么写

首先我们留学生要明白，review综述是什么？

“综”是综合分析整理，是基本，“述”是对文献的观点和结论进行叙述和评论，是升华。Review就是在综合前人观点的基础上，提炼出自己的精华。

那么如何在尽可能短的时间内写出一篇高质量的literature review呢？有什么秘诀吗？

首先要取一个标题。Review的标题没有什么好说的技巧，如果针对某个比较宏观的主题，一般都是在“进展”、“关系”、“发展”这些词中选择一个，或者是把内容中要处理的问题简缩成一句陈述句。

很多同学都觉得，literature review写到最后就成了一团乱麻，时间跨度一长，各种citation的出处也不记清了，最后的结果就是乱引一通。

所以工欲善其事必先利其器，在开始写review之前，要先选择一款自己用得最舒服的文献管理工具。

整理文献的常用软件

常用的文献管理软件除了大家熟悉的功能强大的EndNote之外，还有很多。

Mendeley是最近这两年比较火的软件了。它的特点是有一个的社区大家可以共同分享和讨Mendeley还加入了最新的文献评价指标：Altmetric，这是一个新兴的论文评价指标，相比于以往的影响因子，Altmetric被翻译成“社会化影响力”或者 “网络影响因子”或者“分享因子”更能反应其本质。因为Altmetric追踪的是包括微博、Twitter或者Facebook等在内的社交媒体对某课题的影响力。

Mendeley对引文非常友好，只要直接把PDF文件拖进Mendeley就可以了。在格式方面，可选择Mendeley已经制作好的文献格式，也可以手动在线制作。

Zotero相比前两个要轻量级很多，甚至可以作为浏览器插件来用。相比Endnote，Zotero支持无限分级，还可以给文献打上标签，查找起来很方便。

如何选择适合自己的文献

选好了用着顺手的工具之后，下一步就是挑选合适的文献来读了。

很多同学刚接触到一个新的领域，面对完全陌生的知识，就不知所措了。看了两篇艰深的论文之后，彻底丧失信心，所以很多人常常把任务拖到ddl，最后敷衍了事，草草收场。

一般拿到题目之后，导师都会给几篇总论性的文献。

这几篇文献是重点研读对象，读完之后会对这个领域有一个基本的了解。

读完之后，建议带着自己的问题和思考去找导师，再请导师推荐一些文章来读。等到知识储备比较丰富了，就能只通过abstract鉴别出这个领域哪些文章值得读了。否则在还不熟悉的时候就一头栽进去，只是浪费时间。

可是遇到那种放养型的导师怎么办呢？

为大家提供一个一个guideline：

①在各大数据库搜索关键词，把文章类型锁定为review。

②按时间前后、期刊影响因子高低、相关度高低筛选排序。

③重点研读排名前五的文章。

④在读的时候注意自己有没有灵光闪现的时候，做好笔记。把可能引用到自己review里的句子高亮标记出来。特别好的文章可以打印出来，反复读。

⑤找不到别的高质量文章来读怎么办？终极办法是从这五篇文章的参考文献中去找，绝对会有意外之喜。

还有几个小tips：

①注意文献发表时间。文章的时效性很重要，一般来说是越新越好。

②尽量引用一手文献。

③分清不同作者的观点和文献内容。

④不可以擅自更改别的作者的观点。

⑤选择影响因子高的文献。本领域的经典高引文献一定要引用。

⑥注重文献的权威性。有些相悖于主流观点的文献不引，或者在引用时说明分歧观点。

另外，建议这个和新领域破冰熟悉的时间不要拖得太长，一旦有灵感，就应该开始正式动笔起草review了。

不要担心想法不成熟，毕竟一篇好的review要反复更改的。Review里的信息也是在你不断阅读新文献的过程中不断更新的，毕竟literature review writing service on “Done is better than perfect” 。

Review的顺序和结构

Review一般有两种书写方式：

第一种是按年代顺序：在该研究领域内，从最早的信息开始，按照发表的时间顺序讨论文献，对其历史演变、目前状况、未来趋势作纵向描述。这种动态综述的写法可以让读者清楚地了解到这个领域的来龙去脉。

第二种是主题式：作者提出自己要研究的主题，然后对这个主题的各研究观点进行组织讨论，对各有关问题归在不同标题下，进行整理分析，然后再把不同标题连接起来。

主题式写法对作者的知识和写作技巧都提出了很高的要求，一不小心就会写成东一榔头西一棒子，行文没有逻辑和组织感，让读者摸不着头脑。

所以建议大家第一篇review就按照时间顺序这样写，等到写得手熟了，再挑战第二种。

选择完参考文献和书写形式后，就要开始思考review的结构了。

很多大牛写review不拘一格，但还是建议大家用introduction+小标题+conclusion的形式来写，这是最简洁明了又易操作的形式。

而且列小标题还会强迫你去思考——自己要把review的主题分割成多少个小问题来解决，这些问题之间又怎样互相连接，可以make it a story呢？

写review是一个体力活，是一个迫使自己思考的过程，也是一个最有效的让我们熟悉一个新的领域的办法。

通过写review，我们可以很快了解到目前的研究动态，存在的问题及其原因，今后的研究问题和发展方向，之后便会更好的认识到自己的课题，知道已经做了什么，自己要做什么，还有什么问题需要解决等等一系列问题，为自己研究选题打好基础。

以上就是关于Literature Review的讲解，对于Literature Review的写作，大家一定要认真，要学会灵活运用技巧，这样才能写好Literature Review.

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作业代写：Fake news and Real news in The Age of the Internet

下面为大家整理一篇优秀的paper代写范文- Fake news and Real news in The Age of the Internet，供大家参考学习，这篇论文讨论了互联网时代的媒体新闻。不同的媒体传播技术表现出不同的新闻特征和手段。与传统媒体相比，互联网等新媒体可以接触到大量受众，获得受众的反应。全球化的媒体也极大地影响了国际文化价值观，破坏了当地的文化。在政治意向方面，媒体传播重新定义了媒体是讨论具体问题，还是征询人民意见。

Introduction

The media and communication technologies have hugely developed in the past history period. They can more or less influence a country’s politics, economy, culture and society. The main purpose of this essay is to analyze and discuss the biases and culture studies of media and communication, and their implications of politics. The essay first discusses the role of media and communication in the U.S. election, and the biases in connection with media. Following this, it discusses the changes of the meaning of ‘news’ in different media technologies. It also analyzes the prospect and risks for the national cultures in an era of globalized media. Finally, it explains the relations and implications between media and politics.

Role of media and communication in the U.S. election

Media and communication has been playing an important role in the U.S. election (Hardt 1998, p.115). The emergence of new media has not only changed people’s daily life, it is also quietly changing people’s political life (Hardt 1998, p.116). Taking the Obama’s election as the example, Obama needs to door to door knocking for votes before the new media. After the new media, Obama can conveniently be for votes through the Internet.

In fact, the media has changed the political landscape in the United States. In the end of the 19th century, American newspaper media gradually developed (Hardt 1998, p.115). The leader of the media industry Pulitzer supported Cleveland to run for President after acquisition the world newspaper and exposed his political rival scandal, which was an important chip for the president election of Cleveland (Hardt 1998, p.116). On September 26 of 1960, in a TV studio, John Kennedy and his rival, Richard Nixon began the American history TV debate for the presidential candidate. Most audiences on the radio thought that Nixon gained the upper hand. However, the audience in front of TV can see that Kennedy was easier and more self-controlled. Kennedy won the presidential election later, although not all TV media credit, the televised debate has since become necessary link for the U.S. election.

In the 21st century, the Internet and other new media played an important role in the U.S. election. In 2008, Obama almost overturned the presidential election mode through making full use of the Internet. With the high popularization of the network, the network is one important way of public opinion. With the popularity of web 2.0, the network community paying attention to the user interaction and independent creation become the main force of leading the development of the Internet such as Youtube, Facebook, MySpace, etc. In these online communities, ordinary people can create web logs, upload video and pictures and express their own points of view. The young people of the United States are the first generation growing up with the Internet groups. Their behavior characteristics of the desire to share information and team orientation will influence the culture and politics of the United States. For example, the rise of the internet community such as MySpace and Youtube changed the social network, which further changed the political landscape of the United States.

Different uses of the term, bias, in connection with media

Bias is widely used in different methods in connection with media. Harold Innis often uses the term bias in a specific way. The term bias for his expression emphasized an objective approach rather not a preference or prejudice of a thing, which mainly refers to an inherent tendency of technologies of communication (Innis 2008 ,p.226). In terms of the media, the term bias approach can be used to explain related issues of media and communication. In Harold Innis’s book “The Bias of Communication”, he used the biases of communication technologies for what people call media. Innis (2008, p.228) thought that people can become more clearly of the implications of media communication on empires and individuals by understanding of the term bias with respect to media that refers to coloring our view of a particular thing. Innis also uses the word bias occasionally with a more common sense. For example, he called his own bias through comparing the oral form communication and written form communication for media. His view is that the written media communication form such as newspaper and books played a dominate role for a lot of years and have huge influence on the political pattern. For instance, it led to the outbreak of the two world wars. Innis (2008, p.229) also believes that the written communication can be easier and quicker to transform the information.

Edward Said also uses the term bias in covering islam events in the mass media. His bias for the treatment of islam coverage is that the main objective of coverage of islam events is to cover up the facts rather than expose it (Waston & Hill 2015, p.369). He thought that the news coverage should never view the Muslim countries in a simple way because the category it covers is very broad and it is not appropriate to describe the realities (Waston & Hill 2015, p.365). Edward Said also showed his bias on the use of the word “the west” on the mass media. He expressed his view that the term is value and misleading generalization. He thinks that the use of Christianity is the core definition of Islam. However, other countries should not use the religion to define their countries because the use of religion as defining the entire societies is often based on some reasons, for instance, covering up the realities.

Changes in the meaning of ‘news’

The news is in the early period presented with the printing press. The printing press mainly refers to the newspaper (Waston & Hill 2015, p.389). On the newspaper, the communicated information is quite limited. Many details of news can not reflected in the newspaper. In addition, it is impossible for readers to express their thoughts or opinions. Last but not least, the printing press only can achieve limited audiences.

In order to reach more users, the mass media rises, including the broadcast, film, video games and Audio recording (Waston & Hill 2015, p.389). The mass media can achieve ‘one-to-many’, namely reaching many audiences through mass communication (Waston & Hill 2015, p.389). Compared to the printing press, the mass media can pass the barriers of time and space to reach to those far removed audiences (Waston & Hill 2015, p.389).

Today, the new media form such as computers, tablets and so on plays a potential advantage of connecting people constantly. The meaning of ‘news’ in this form of technology media can be reflected through the word ‘connectivity’. The rise of Internet was first resulted from the blogs on which people can freely express their personal opinions and thoughts (Waston & Hill 2015, p.389). However, the blogs lack of the interactivity, which was achieved gradually with the rise of twitter and facebook. The new media mainly refers to the internet on which people can conveniently load the images and videos and comment on the online webs, which is a huge advantage compared to the traditional printing press. The most important is that the internet makes that people can experience themselves and the world. Compared to the old media technologies, the new media achieves ‘many-to-many’, which means that the news can reach masses of users. In return, the users can respond to them.

It is speculated that the future media will become quicker to connect people. In the future, the media will be intelligent technology combined with mature people thinking. This means that everyone has the ability to perceive the future and predict the future. People’s perception and the advice of others will be able to accomplish the future of an industry and promote the development of an industry.

The prospect and risks for national cultures

In the era of global media, the cultures’ spread among countries become quicker and a country’s culture can be hugely influenced by other countries’ culture (Baran & Barrosse 2004, p.287). Different countries can together discuss the cultural values and develop better value views to promote the social’s progress (Baran & Barrosse 2004, p.287). For example, the Arab Spring events proved that the ideology and cultural values are the keys to participate in the international competition in the smooth global information communication environment. As a national soft power, the spread of cultural values, on the one hand can play a positive role in promoting the global development. On the other hand, it also has the opposite effects. For one thing, the spread of the cultural values among countries through the global media can obtain the understanding and recognition. For another thing, the quick liquidity of hybrid information also to certain extent destroyed the traditional ethnic culture structure. Once the foreign culture value system countered to the traditional culture systems of the nationalities, it will lead to the outbreak of nationalist sentiment.

In a media globally era, the boundary of national cultures can be broken down (Baran & Barrosse 2004, p.287). For example, the Internet can influence the product process globally, which further declines the boundaries between economy and cultures. People become less secure on the support and a sense of community when the national culture is undermined in the global media era. For example, the global economy and media form makes the products can be traded on the international markets and the owners can fully take advantage of the cheap labor force in other countries. This is a threat of the local countries’ labors and they may face the unemployment or lower payment. The national or local culture will not operate in the difficult times. People more tend to the religion as a resource to help them spend the uncertain times.

Relations and influences between media and politics

The development of social media has an increasingly close interaction with the political activities, making the modern politics gradually to a new kind of political form (Baran & Barrosse 2004, p.287). The political process to a great extent has been communicated through media, including political management, public policy, political participation and political rule and so on (Baran & Barrosse 2004, p.287). Especially, the electronic government affairs occurred after the rise of the Internet, which made huge changes in the government management. In the information age, the government every time faces the huge pressure from the social media. As in 2008 initiated by former British politicians and senior civil servants, the press and television has been putting the huge pressure on the government and the government had little time to implement the coherent legislation and administrative decisions.

In addition, social media can influence the form of participating in the politics for people. Traditionally, young people use the elections or party membership to participate in the politics (Baran & Barrosse 2004, p.287). The occurrence of the social media makes people have new definition of the politics. People can review the politics as solving specific issues or adopt the actions rather than only the election framework. For example, the social media, Tunisian Bloggers, has an instrumental impact in promoting the country’s democracy. The occurrence of Bloggers makes people believe that real democracy can only happen through discussing and consulting the particular issues under the rule with the social media rather than through voting according to the rule. Therefore, the social media redefines the forms of politics as researching the specific issues and consulting people’s opinions rather than elections or party membership.

Last but not least, the social media can influence the social stability. For example, the social media makes more and more young people gaming on the Internet, including kids and women, which may lead to more family contradiction. In particular, when kids see many violence films or movies, they can follow the behaviors on the films and lead to the violence events in real life. This will raise the social issues and political instability.

Conclusion

In conclusion, the media and communication played an important role in the U.S. election. The different media communication technologies show different characteristics and means for news. Compared to the traditional media, the new media such as Internet can reach a large audience and gain the response of the audience. The globalized media also hugely influenced the international culture values and undermined the local countries’ culture. In terms of the politics implications, the media communication redefines the media as discussing the particular issues and consulting the people’s opinions rather than only party membership or election.

References

Baran, S. J., & Barrosse, E. (2004). Introduction to mass communication. Media literacy and culture. McGraw-Hill.

Hardt, H. (1998). Interactions: Critical studies in communication, meida, & journalism. Rowman & Littlefield Pub Inc.

Innis, H.A. (2008). The bias of communication. University of Toronto Press.

Waston, J., & Hill, A. (2015). Dictionary of media and communication studies. Bloomsbury Publishing USA.

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Process Essay的写作思路

在国外大学的众多作业形式中，Essay是留学生们最常见的，其种类也是非常多样化的。其中Process Essay就是一种写作难度较大的类型，它是过程分析类的Essay，依靠事实和客观信息，那么Process Essay该怎么写呢？下面就给大家讲解一下它的写作思路。

1.首先要选择一个自己能够拿捏的角度，适当选择是的题材

在process essay写作的时候，一定要选择一个你比较熟悉的话题，这样才能方便你文章写作的顺利开展。例如，你要写一个学生申请助学金的process essay，你一定要保证自己熟悉这个流程，并明白这个过程如何操作。写作的过程中还要将你的读者考虑进去，要使你的文章具有可读性，并且保证读者能够明白你写了什么。

2.可以拟写一个比较简单直观的Introduction

如果读者对于process essay中的某一个环节或者某一点非常感兴趣，你最好能够写出一个简短的Introduction，不仅要进行简单介绍，并且还要介绍相关的背景信息。

写一个有趣的介绍性的那个段落感兴趣的读者提供了背景信息的过程。包括一个句子论文声明，恰恰告诉读者这篇文章会，会发生什么。记住，论文观点指导论文的其余部分。

3.仔细考虑具体需要包括的内容和细节

写作的时候一定要在文章主体中使用清新的和直接的语言，确保涉及文章主题的相关段落的合理为了清晰地表现具体流程，就需要合理使用“first”、“then”和“next”这些词。

4.最后结尾一定要将结果呈现出来

对process进行总结概括，在这个部分不要增加新的步骤，如果是一篇how-to article,就需要针对你essay中的具体步骤进行分析，以验证信息的准确性。修改表述不清的内容，检查拼写和语法错误。

以上就是给大家总结出的Process Essay写作思路。大家在写这类Essay的时候，需要多多思考如何才能唤醒导师或是读者对自己论文话题的兴趣，希望上面几个思路可以帮助大家。

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Paper代写：Transition to Modernity

本篇paper代写- Transition to Modernity讨论了鲁迅。鲁迅又名周树人，是中国近代著名的作家。他在中国文坛和中国历史上扮演着重要的角色，不仅因为他犀利而杰出的写作风格，还因为他在那个时代对公众的启蒙作用。他支持辛亥革命，在五四运动中起了领导作用。鲁迅在日本留学期间，注意到中国社会在辛亥革命后仍然是一个黑暗落后的社会，所以决定通过自己的工作来改变这种状况。因此，鲁迅作品中的许多人物都是与黑暗社会作斗争的先驱者。本篇paper代写由51due代写平台整理，供大家参考阅读。

Lu Xun, also known as Zhou Shuren, is a famous writer in modern China. He plays an important role in Chinese literary world and Chinese history, not only because of the sharp and distinguished style of writing, but also because of his effort to enlighten the public during his age. He supported 1911 revolution, played a leading role in 1919 May fourth movement, advocated Chinese communist Party. Lu Xun, during his study in Japan, noticed that Chinese society is still a dark and backward society after 1911 revolution and decided to change the situation through his work. As a result, numerous characters in Lu Xun’s work are pioneers that fight against the dark society. This essay analyzes several novels written by Lu Xun and explores modernity of characters in these works .

Compared to other works at that time, “A Madman’s Diary” is unique since it adopts a new way of writing in modern Chinese. The form of diary enables the reader to know the inner thought of Madman better. The reason that many authors adopt mad men in their works is to break the norm of everyday life which is seemingly reasonable but actually absurd. To make it simple, the so-called madman bravely fights against social norm and is actually a pioneer and fighter in the society. The appearance of Madman represents the emergence of modern thoughts. What makes Madman so distinguished from other “ordinary” men lies in his way of thinking: what is normal to Madman is absurd to the ordinary while what is considered as social rules is cannibalism to Madman. Therefore, Madman is beginning to think about whether it is right because “it has always been like that” (cp226, 14). And as a result of critical thinking, Madman realizes the words in history book are actually “Eat People” instead of “'Virtue and Morality” (cp224, 10).

On reading the diary for the first time, the first thought that comes to our mind must be that Madman actually suffers from mentally illness because cannibalism is an impossible story that can only exist in primitive society. When we evolve from a monkey to human being and have complex emotions, it is hard to believe that we can eat our own species for any reason. However, on the second thought, what Madman realizes point out directly the cruelty and nature of late-Qing dynasty. They never eat the flesh of their species, but the public are holding the candle to the devil . They are severely depressed by feudal society: tortured by the governor, humiliated by the local gentry, forced to separate with their wives, and parents killed due to debt (cp223, 9). But they choose to ignore the rascality and even become accomplice instead of fighting against this dark society. Pioneers like Madman live in a society that is full of darkness and obsoleteness and deeply influenced by feudal thought. Despite all the difficulty and possibility of failure, Madman shoulders the responsibility to convert the society and fight against feudal thoughts. And unlike the silent public, Madman takes action against feudal system a long time ago by “on Mr. Ku Chiu’s account sheets” (cp223, 9) which represents feudal tradition.

Although it is not mentioned directly in the short story, Madman is supposed to have received high education. As a result, he shows the characteristic of self-confession , which is different from other ignorant villagers. Therefore, he realizes that he has unknowingly spent my life in a country “where for four thousand years they have been eating human flesh” (cp228, 18). When Madman realizes that he might have also eaten human flesh as a young and innocent child, he, rather than passes the buck, admits the crime and is willing to shoulder the responsibility resulting from the crime. In the end of his diary, Madman also expresses a hope for the future, when those innocent children can live in a more liberal society and get rid of cannibalism.

In modern society, one key element is that everyone is equal and enjoys the happiness of freedom. But modern thought is not only about democracy and liberty. It also includes freedom to love and choose one’s spouse. In ancient China, the tradition is that parents and matchmakers are in charge of children’s marriage and they can choose spouse for their children while women have no other choice but to marry the chosen one. And possibility has it that the couple has never seen each other before their marriage. To fight against this feudal tradition, Lu Xun expresses his call for free love in virtue of the character of Tzu Chun, a fearless woman who fights for her love.

Although Tzu Chun is not well-educated, she is still greatly influenced by the 1919 May Fourth Movement. As a result, Tzu Chun longs for liberty and free love , announcing that “I'm my own mistress one of them has any right to interfere with me” (cp230, 198). From Chuan Sheng’s thought afterwards it can be inferred that a woman with such an announcement is rare in that age. Furthermore, Tzu Chun moves in together with Chuan Sheng despite all the opposition her parents hold. Though it seems normal nowadays for lovers to live together before marriage, it is considered as deviant at that time when body contact is still considered as immoral behavior. As a challenge to Chinese traditions, Tzu Chun also suffers a lot of pain and pressure. She breaks up with her family and leaves herself no route of retreat in this relation.

Like every fairy tale never tells after-marriage life of prince and princess, it is never an easy task to live together regardless of what others think, especially in the age when feudal thoughts are still the mainstream. As indicated from the title and in the beginning, Tzu Chun’s bravery only enjoys a short moment of happiness with the man she loves and fights for. On one hand, Tzu Chun, though influenced by modern thoughts, still cannot discard all feudal sides: dependent of man, and in lack of education. As Chuan Sheng once says, it is true that love must be constantly renewed, must grow and create. Their love, however, just stays there, never renewed. In the honeymoon period of their relation, Chuan Sheng loves to share his thoughts with Tzu Chun. However, as they move in together, Tzu Chun gradually becomes a traditional woman again. She is busy with house-keeping and has no spare time to chat, not to mention “to read or to go out for walks” (cp232, 202). On the other hand, Chuan Sheng is indeed selfish and not brave as Tzu Chun. He knows the result once he breaks to die because of these deviant and immoral behaviors. Even so, Chuan Sheng makes up his mind to break up with the one who cut off all her retreat to be with him and forces her to die. He makes no difference with the public in “A Madman’s Diary”.

The desire to fight for love of Tzu Chun is vain. So is the wish of Madman to spread the idea of liberty and democracy. Madman also recovers from his past illness, takes up an official post, and stop fighting against the society (cp222, 7).

These characters fail to change the dark situation, and it seems that what Lu Xun wants to elaborate is that no matter how hard you try, failure is destiny. However, as Lu Xun writes in another piece of work, a man awakes in an iron cabin full of people is facing a dilemma: whether he should try to wake others up or wait till death alone. And he gives the answer that this man should wake up others despite the small chance they have to break the iron house. If the first makes no movement, everybody surely dies. To make it clear, though seemingly ineffective, pioneers like Madman and Tzu Chun still help the development of Chinese society as more and more people are to wake up. And since the power gets stronger, the victory can never be an impossible thing.

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Essay代写：The development of insurance in England from the 18th to the mid-19th century

下面为大家整理一篇优秀的essay代写范文- The development of insurance in England from the 18th to the mid-19th century，供大家参考学习，这篇论文讨论了18至19世纪中期英国保险的发展。在18至19世纪上半期，英国的保行业险呈现多样性的发展特征。在保险经营者中，个体保险商与保险公司各自发挥所长，推动英国保险不断向前发展；英国三大保险业务均出现不同程度的增长；在保费收入之外，英国保险商积极寻求由投资带来的稳定收益；保险市场在地理空间上扩展，保险力量在坚守伦敦的同时正在大举进入伦敦以外地区甚至海外市场。

Insurance operator, insurance business, insurance investment and insurance market are important elements to study the development of British insurance. The business performance of Marine insurance, fire insurance and life insurance has been gratifying. In addition to obtaining premium income, insurance investment is becoming another important way for insurers to obtain profits. British insurers are expanding at home and abroad. In general, the development of insurance in the UK was characterized by diversity from the 18th to the mid-19th century.

Individual underwriters and insurance companies constitute the dual structure of insurance operators. Together, they are active in the UK insurance market, giving full play to their advantages and contributing to the development of the UK insurance industry.

Individual underwriters are mainly engaged in Marine insurance business. Their mode of operation is obviously different from that of the insurance company: each of them contributes 100 pounds or 500 pounds to the underwriting business of ships and goods on a certain route, and takes the form of joint underwriting, and is superior to the insurance company in terms of cost and reputation. Individual insurers gain a foothold in the market with a cautious attitude and familiarity with their areas of expertise. At the time of insurance broker George brownie: "as long as careful, the insurance industry is a profitable industry." Of course, it is not enough for individual insurers to be cautious. The natural conditions of departure and return from any country; Suitable seasons for different voyages... ". Reasonable operation, low cost, good reputation, prudent attitude and excellent professional knowledge are the keys to the success of individual insurers in the field of Marine insurance business.

Beyond the success factor, they were fortunate to be the beneficiaries of the bubble act. According to the provisions of the bubble act, royal exchange insurance company and London insurance company are the only two insurance companies to obtain the Marine insurance franchise, that is, other than the two companies, other companies are not allowed to participate in the Marine insurance business, but the individual insurers are not prohibited. However, the volume of Marine insurance business operated by the two franchised companies is very limited and "it is estimated that the total amount of insurance underwritten by the two companies per annum does not exceed 4 per cent of the risk". This also means that individual insurers more assume the underwriting burden of the Marine insurance field.

Compared with individual insurers, insurance companies have the advantage that they own more resources, especially the capital and talent needed for the development of insurance business. And they are more powerful. The rapid development of fire and life insurance business and the increasing number of British insurance companies between 1700 and 1850 proved that the organizational form of company system was suitable for the development of insurance. In terms of capital, insurance companies have access to capital security channels, and can continuously "hematopoiesis" for themselves by collecting premium, investment and other income acquisition methods, which makes the development of insurance companies more sustainable. In addition, insurance companies attach great importance to giving full play to the advantages of people, which is mainly manifested in the fact that insurance companies actively station agents or set up agencies in the areas to be developed. "between 1700 and 1850, every fire insurance company would appoint agents outside the location of the company". These agents solicit business for the head office in various regions and improve the business performance of the insurance company.

An individual underwriter works with an insurance company as an operator of the British insurance industry. They are all important driving forces for the development of the insurance industry. The development of British insurance benefits from the dual structure of insurance operators, that is, only when the dual structure of insurance operators plays the most effective role can it be more conducive to the development of insurance industry.

Marine insurance, fire insurance and life insurance, which appeared in the British insurance market at the end of the 17th century, developed vigorously from the 18th to the mid-19th century.

The development of Marine insurance business benefits from the growth of overseas trade. "Marine insurance is an essential part of foreign trade, and foreign trade is the strength and vitality of Marine insurance". Since the 18th century, British overseas trade has developed rapidly. "from 1700 to 1780, British foreign trade nearly doubled, while the maritime industry nearly tripled. From the late 18th century to the mid-19th century, Britain's foreign trade grew more rapidly: "from 1784 to 1786, Britain's annual foreign trade volume reached 13.614 million pounds, from 1804 to 1806, it increased to 41.24 million pounds, and from 1844 to 1846, it rose to 58.42 million pounds. The growth of trade is conducive to the improvement of the performance of Marine insurance business. According to the tax statistics at the end of the 18th century, the insurance amount of Marine insurance has exceeded 100 million pounds. In general, the growth of overseas trade is a reliable guarantee for the continuous improvement of Marine insurance performance.

The performance growth ability of fire insurance business ranks first among the three insurance businesses. Fire insurance income is determined by the total insured value and average premium rate. The industrial revolution led to a large increase in British social wealth, and the insurance amount of British property was also on the rise. "in the mid-1720s, the insurance amount of British property reached 31 million pounds, and by the mid-19th century, it had climbed to 730 million pounds, an increase of 24 times. Meanwhile, fire insurance rate is relatively stable, and the average insurance rate of insurance companies is maintained between 0.1% and 0.2%. The huge increase of insurance amount and the stability of insurance rate are the reliable guarantee for the benefit of British fire insurers.

The life insurance business is moving forward in twists and turns. Before 1800, the number of insurance companies was small, the amount of insurance was limited, and the monopoly of industry giants was obvious. "the number of customers was limited to about 10,000, and the amount of insurance was slightly more than 10 million, nearly half of which were insured by London's fair life insurance company. Life insurance business took an important turning point after the 19th century. The improvement of the living standard of British residents and the deepening of the British people's re-understanding of life values after the religious reform are the key factors for the development of life insurance business to enter the rising period. From the first half of the 19th century, the life insurance industry started a rapid growth model. By 1850, the number of life insurance companies has exceeded 150, the amount of insurance amounted to 150 million pounds. Insurance companies and the amount of insurance increased substantially.

The strong development of the three major insurance businesses in the UK reflects the good trend of the development of various insurance businesses in the UK, which reflects its vitality. This vitality is based on the application of insurance business to the economic and social development of the UK. The development of British economy and society requires insurance to provide security, and the development of British insurance business cannot be separated from the British society itself. It can be seen that the insurance industry and society are increasingly close.

Another way to earn income: insurance investment the profits of British insurance companies mainly depended on premium income in the 18th and mid-19th centuries, and the development of the three insurance businesses was the guarantee for British insurers to earn income. In addition to premium income, income from investment is another way for insurers to benefit. This is most obvious in the operation of insurance companies.

The investment of insurance companies strives for stability. Most insurance companies are still in the exploratory stage, and many companies lack experience. They have particularly high requirements on investment safety. Liquidity and the security of principal and income are the two basic conditions for insurance companies to invest. Including bond funds, fixed assets and other British insurance companies become the main investment channels.

Bond funds mainly include government bonds and public offering funds. They are all relatively safe and yield is relatively stable. Insurance companies have a strong preference for government bonds, as evidenced by the proportion of their investments in government bonds, including Manchester fire and life insurance, which invested three-quarters of their equity in government bonds in the early stage of their establishment. This is a manifestation of insurance companies' trust in the safety and income stability of government bonds. This is the insurance companies trust in government bonds; Public offering fund is also an important target for insurance companies to seek safe investment. It is a good choice for companies with especially high requirements on capital security. For most of the 18th century three London mutual insurers put almost all their members' savings into public funds.

Real estate mortgage loans and investment in railway construction constitute the main fixed assets invested by British insurance companies. Some property owners mortgage their real estate to insurance companies. This is a win-win approach: on the one hand, owners of real estate do not have to sell their property, but only rely on collateral to obtain funds provided by insurance companies; On the other hand, insurance companies could make corresponding profits. By the mid-19th century, "many life insurance companies invested 40% of their assets in real estate mortgage, and the profit margin could reach 3.5% ~ 5%.

Insurance companies are also keen on railway construction investment, insurance funds have been heavily invested in railway construction since the 19th century. Since railway construction has been included in the state policy and the benefits are relatively certain, the investment in railway construction has been recognized by insurance companies, and the investment proportion of relevant companies has been kept at a high level. In the 1840s, the royal exchange insurance company invested 10 percent of its investment in railroads. Sun insurance company holds a large amount of railway bonds. "in 1844, it bought 5,000 pounds of railway bonds for the first time. By mid-1850 the figure had risen to 240,000 pounds, or 30 per cent of its total investment. Represented by royal transaction insurance company and sun insurance company, it reflects that insurance companies attach great importance to investment in railway construction.

Investment risk and return are inversely proportional, the choice of low risk, security is guaranteed, which means no chance of high returns. Phoenix's investment income in the 1920s accounted for a quarter of its premium income; Sun and Manchester fire and life insurers have never received more than a third of their premium income from investments... These data show that the investment income of insurance companies is relatively limited. The profit acquisition mode of insurance companies is mainly premium income, supplemented by investment income. Investment income can only be regarded as a beneficial supplement to premium income.

In terms of market development, British insurance has a two-way development strategy that takes both domestic and international into account. While adhering to the domestic market, British insurance also actively expands overseas.

First, London is the centre of the UK insurance market. This is mainly reflected in: first, London is the gathering place of British insurance forces. British influential insurance companies or institutions such as royal transaction insurance company, London insurance company, sun insurance company and fair life insurance company are almost all located in London. Second, the city of London has a long history of insurance. For example, the fire in London in 1666 triggered people's thinking on fire insurance, which was directly related to the emergence of fire insurance business in Britain. Lloyd's coffee shop in London has been closely associated with the shipping industry since its establishment and has gradually grown into a Marine insurance business center. This is the embodiment of London's strong insurance culture. Third, London enjoys a good reputation at home and abroad for its insurance business. At home and abroad, as the main insurance force is concentrated here, London has become the policyholder's most important choice, it has a wide range of influence.

Second, British insurers are expanding outside London. During this period, the area outside London became the focus of British insurance expansion. Established in 1718, Bristol crown insurance company is the first local insurance company in Britain. In the mid-late 18th century, insurance companies were established at a faster pace in various cities, such as Manchester, Liverpool, Leeds, Newcastle, Norwich and other cities to establish fire insurance companies named after their own cities. With the emergence of regional insurance companies, the insurance territory of Britain expanded rapidly.

Third, the expansion of pioneer forces overseas. At this time, British insurance companies in overseas expansion has not formed a group advantage, mainly a few pioneers venture overseas, especially phoenix insurance company as a representative. Phoenix insurance company from the establishment of the first year to accept insurance requests from abroad. In the first five years of its operation, Germany, Portugal, Spain, France, the Netherlands, Italy and other insurance coverage. In the process of overseas expansion, British insurance companies focus on establishing overseas branches in big cities such as Hamburg, Amsterdam and Lisbon. This is like the branch offices established by insurance companies in various cities when they expand from their headquarters to surrounding counties at home. In this sense, British insurance companies copy the successful experience at home to the process of expanding abroad. This is of great significance for British insurance companies to seize the international market and strengthen their own strength. By the middle of the 19th century, pioneers of overseas expansion had been able to establish themselves overseas. By 1840, phoenix insurance company earned nearly 90,000 pounds of premium from abroad every year, which was nearly half of its total income. The success of pioneers represented by phoenix insurance company will lead more insurance companies to go abroad.

To sum up, from the 18th to the first half of the 19th century, British insurance showed the characteristics of diversified development: among insurance operators, individual insurers and insurance companies gave full play to their strengths to promote the continuous development of British insurance; The three major insurance businesses in the UK all showed varying degrees of growth. In addition to premium income, British insurers actively seek stable income from investment; The insurance market is expanding in geographical space, and while the insurance force is sticking to London, it is entering the markets outside London and even overseas on a large scale. The diversity of the development of British insurance reflects the characteristics of The Times that the British insurance industry strives to make the best use of its talents, develops in an all-round way, is enterprising but avoids radicalization. In an expanding market, insurance operators should do their best to promote the development of British insurance in an all-round way without losing their stability. The future development of British insurance is worth looking forward to.

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